discoverer in English geology; and especially for his having been the first in this country to discover and to teach the identification of strata, and to determine their succession by means of their imbedded fossils.' Cuvier's discoveries, on the other hand, both from the high philosophic fame of their author, and from their intrinsic importance, arrested at once the attention of scientific Europe; and, notwithstanding the undoubted priority of Smith's labours, for a long time were looked upon as the starting-point of our knowledge of organic fossils. And, in reality, although Cuvier's memoirs derived the greatest part of their value from his zoological conclusions, they reflected back no small portion of interest on the classifications of strata, which were involved in his inferences. And the views which he presented gave to geology au attractive and striking character, and a connexion with large physiological as well as physical principles, which added incomparably to its dignity and charm. In tracing the reception and diffusion of doctrines such as those of Smith and Cuvier, we ought not to omit to notice more especially the formation and history of the Geological Society of London, just mentioned. It was established in 1807, with a view to multiply and record observations, and patiently to await the result at some future period; that is, its founders resolved to apply themselves to Descriptive Geology, thinking the time not come for that theoretical geology which had then long fired the controversial ardour of Neptunists and Plutonists. The first volume of the Transactions of this society was published in 1811. The greater part of the contents of this volume savour of the notions of the Wernerian school; and there are papers on some of the districts in England most rich in fossils, which, Mr. Conybeare says, well exhibit the low state of secondary geology at that period. But a paper by Mr. Parkinson refers to the discoveries both of Smith and of Cuvier; and in the next volume, Mr. Webster gives an account of the Isle of Wight, 2 Conybeare, Report, Brit. Assoc. p. 372. following the admirable model of Cuvier and Brongniart's account of the Paris basin. If we compare this memoir of Mr. Webster with the preceding one of Dr. Berger, (also on the Isle of Wight,) they at once show themselves to belong to two very distinct eras of science; and it is difficult to believe that the interval which elapsed between their respective publication was only three or four years." '3 Among the events belonging to the diffusion of sound geological views in this country, we may notice the publication of a little volume entitled, The Geology of England and Wales, by Mr. Conybeare and Mr. Phillips, in 1821; an event far more important than, from the modest form and character of the work, it might at first sight appear. By describing in detail the geological structure and circumstances of one part of England, (at least as far downwards as the coal,) it enabled a very wide class of readers to understand and verify the classifications which geology had then very recently established; while the extensive knowledge and philosophical spirit of Mr. Conybeare rendered it, under the guise of a topographical enumeration, in reality a profound and instructive scientific treatise. The vast impulse which it gave to the study of sound descriptive geology was felt and acknowledged in other countries, as well as in Britain. Since that period, Descriptive Geology in England has constantly advanced. The advance has been due mainly to the labours of the members of the Geological Society; on whose merits as cultivators of their science, none but those who are themselves masters of the subject, have a right to dwell. Yet some parts of the scientific character of these men may be appreciated by the general speculator; for they have shown that there are no talents and no endowments which may not find their fitting employment in this science. Besides that they have united laborious research and comprehensive views, acuteness and learning, zeal and knowledge; the philosophical eloquence with which 3. Conybeare, Report, p. 372. they have conducted their discussions has had a most beneficial influence on the tone of their speculations; and their researches in the field, which have carried them into every country and every class of society, have given them that prompt and liberal spirit, and that open and cordial bearing, which results from intercourse with the world on a large and unfettered scale. It is not too much to say, that in our time, Practical Geology has been one of the best schools of philosophical and general culture of mind. Sect. 2.-Application of Systematic Geology. SUCH surveys as that which Conybeare and Phillips's book presented with respect to England, were not only a means of disseminating the knowledge implied in the classifications of such a work, but they were also an essential part of the Application and Extension of the principles established by the founders of Systematic Geology. As soon as the truth of such a system was generally acknowledged, the persuasion of the propriety of geological surveys and maps of each country could not but impress itself on men's minds. When the earlier writers, as Lister and Fontenelle, spoke of mineralogical and fossilological maps, they could hardly be said to know the meaning of the terms which they thus used. But when subsequent classifications had shown how such a suggestion might be carried into effect, and to what important consequences it might lead, the task was undertaken in various countries in a vigorous and consistent manner. In England, besides Smith's map, another, drawn up by Mr. Greenough, was published by the Geological Society in 1819; and, being founded on very numerous observations of the author and his friends, made with great labour and cost, was not only an important correction and confirmation of Smith's labours, but a valuable storehouse and standard of what had then been done in English geology. Leopold von Buch had constructed a geological map of a large portion of Germany, about the same period; but, aware of the difficulty of the task he had thus attempted, he still forbore to publish it. At a later period, and as materials accumulated, more detailed maps of parts of Germany were produced by Hoffmann and others. The French government entrusted to a distinguished Professor of the School of Mines, (M. Brochant de Villiers,) the task of constructing a map of France on the model of Mr. Greenough's; associating with him two younger persons, selected for their energy and talents, MM. de Beaumont and Dufrénoy. We shall have occasion hereafter to speak of the execution of this survey. By various persons, geological maps of almost every country and province of Europe, and of many parts of Asia and America, have been published. I need not enumerate these, but I may refer to the account given of them by Mr. Conybeare, in the Reports of the British Association for 1832, p. 384. These various essays may be considered as contributions, though hitherto undoubtedly very imperfect ones, to that at which Descriptive Geology ought to aim, and which is requisite as a foundation for sound theory;-a complete geological survey of the whole earth. But we must say a few words respecting the language in which such a survey must be written. As we have already said, that condition which made such maps and the accompanying descriptions possible, was that the strata and their contents had previously undergone classification and arrangement at the hands of the fathers of geology. Classification, in this as in other cases, implied names which should give to the classes distinctness and permanence; and when the series of strata belonging to one country were referred to in the description of another, in which they appeared, as was usually the case, under an aspect at least somewhat different, the supposed identification required a peculiar study of each case; and thus Geology had arrived at the point, which we have before had to notice as one of the stages of the progress of Classificatory Botany, at which a technical nomenclature and a well-understood synonymy were essential parts of the science. Sect. 3.-Geological Nomenclature. By Nomenclature we mean a system of names; and hence we cannot speak of a Geological Nomenclature till we come to Werner and Smith. The earlier mineralogists had employed names, often artificial and arbitrary, for special minerals, but no technical and constant names for strata. The elements of Werner's names for the members of his geological series were words in use among miners, as Gneiss, Grauwacke, Thonschiefer, Rothe todte liegende, Zechstein; or arbitrary names of the mineralogists, as Syenite, Serpentine, Porphyry, Granite. But the more technical part of his phraseology was taken from that which is the worst kind of name, arbitrary numeration. Thus he had his first sandstone formation, second sandstone, third sandstone; first flötz limestone, second flötz limestone, third flötz limestone. Such names are, beyond all others, liable to mistake in their application, and likely to be expelled by the progress of knowledge; and accordingly, though the Wernerian names for rocks mineralogically distinguished, have still some currency, his sandstones and limestones, after creating endless confusion while his authority had any sway, have utterly disappeared from good geological works. The nomenclature of Smith was founded upon English provincial terms of very barbarous aspect, as Cornbrash, Lias, Gault, Clunch Clay, Coral Rag. Yet these terms were widely diffused when his classification was generally accepted; they kept their place, precisely because they had no systematic signification; and many of them are at present part of the geological language of the whole civilized world. Another kind of names which has been very prevalent among geologists are those borrowed from places. Thus the Wernerians spoke of Alpine Limestone and Jura Limestone; the English, of Kimmeridge Clay and Oxford Clay, Purbeck Marble, and Portland Rock. These names, referring to the stratum of a known locality as a type, were good, as far as an identity with that type had been traced; but when this had been |