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taken up by count Kinsky, Hauka of Haukenstein, the historian Pelzel, and the Jesuit Balbin. Other scholars espoused the cause, and a chair of the Bohemian language was founded at Prague, and in 1818 a Bohemian museum was established in connection with a society that devoted itself to the study of national antiquities, which society published a journal. Puchmayer, 1795-1820, gave an impulse to national poetry, and was succeeded by Langer, Rokowocel, Schneider, Czelakowsky, H. Kollar, and many other writers. In science Presl, Sadek, Amerling, Smetana, Petcina, Sloboda, and Opiz have attained distinction. The names of writers in politics, theology, etc., are numerous.

BOHEMIANS. See MURGER, HENRI.

BOHEMOND I., eldest son of the Norman conqueror of Apulia and Calabria, Robert Guiscard, was born about 1056, and during his youth distinguished himself in his father's war against the Byzantine emperor, Alexis Comnenus (1081-1085). After his father's death, he was excluded from the throne of Apulia by his brother Roger, and only gained the principality of Tarentum after a long contest. He joined the crusade of 1092 with a large army-most of which he had won over from his brother's serviceand took a prominent part at the fight of Dorylæum, in Cilicia, in 1096, and at the capture of Antioch, 1098. While the other crusaders advanced to storm Jerusalem, B., remained in Antioch, where he established himself as prince. Being soon after besieged, the Christians, reduced to extremities, came out, and gave the sultan battle, and entirely routed his forces, B. greatly distinguishing himself in the fight. He was afterwards made prisoner by a Turkish emir, and remained two years in captivity. Tancred, meanwhile, looked after his interests in Antioch. B. returned to Europe to collect troops, and after defeating Alexis in several engagements, was acknowledged by that emperor as prince of Antioch. He died in Apulia, 1111.-His son B. II., a minor at the death of his father, assumed the government of Antioch (after Tancred had been regent for some years) in 1126, and was killed in battle, 1130.-B. III., grandson of the former, was allowed to retain sovereignty only by the clemency of Saladin, and died 1201.-B. IV. (1233-51) and B. V. (died 1275) were insignificant princes; and with B. VI. the Christian dynasty in Syria was brought to a close.

BOHLEN, PETER VON, 1796-1840; a German oriental scholar, mainly self-educated; professor of oriental languages in the universities of Halle, Bonn, and Konigsberg. His works, except an autobiography, are mostly on the languages of the East.

BÖHLER, PETER, 1712–75; a German theologian and Moravian bishop, who came to America in 1738, and founded Nazareth, in Pennsylvania.

BÖHM, THEOBALD, 1794-1881, a Bavarian flute-player; the inventor of the flute bearing his name, which has superseded the old kinds, and of a new system of fingering. He had some reputation as a composer.

BÖHME, or BÖHM, JAKOB, a German theosophist and mystic, was born of pocz parents at Altseidenberg, near Görlitz, in Upper Lusatia, 1575, and spent his boyhood in tending cattle. He received no instruction till he was ten years of age; but even then, the contemplation of earth and sky had so excited his naturally pious imagination, that he conceived himself inspired. He learned the trade of a shoemaker, but continued to devote much of his time to meditation on divine things. About 1612 was published his first book, called Aurora, or the Morning Redness. It contains revelations and meditations upon God, man, and nature; betokens a remarkable knowledge of Scripture, especially of the apocalyptical books; as also a familiarity with the writings of the mystico-philosophic alchemists. It was condemned by the ecclesiastical authorities of Görlitz; but the persecutions to which its author was subjected, had not the effect of convincing him of his errors. B.'s fundamental speculation is, that the forthcoming of the creation out of the divine unity-which is itself distinguishable into a trinity-can be contemplated by mystic illumination, and expressed in words. The object of his mystic contemplation, accordingly, is twofold; first, God himself apart from creation, or, to use some of B.'s own synonyms, the groundless, the eternal one, the silent nothing, the temperamentum; and, secondly, the forthcoming of the creature out of God. This forthcoming of the creation, which is also an in-going of the silent nothing, is, according to B., the principle of negation, and he calls it "contrariety." "All things," he says, "consist in yes and no. The yes is pure power and life, the truth of God, or God himself. The no is the reply to the yes, or to the truth, and is indispensable to the revelation of the truth. So, then, the silent nothing becomes something by entering into duality;" and so on into what most minds will think utter unintelligibility. Numerous attacks from theologians disturbed B.'s last years, but he bore them all with great meekness. They were probably occasioned by a tract on repentance which his friends had printed without his knowledge; and so great was the interest excited, that he was induced by the solicitations of certain courtiers and of his friends, to visit Dresden for the purpose of having his doctrines investigated. The court applauded and protected him. On returning to Görlitz he took ill, and died 27th Nov., 1624. The first collection of his writings was published by Betke (Amsterdam, 1675); the most complete in 1730, at the same place; and the latest (1831-46) by Schiebler, at Leipsic. Next to Germany, Holland and England are the countries in which B.'s works have been received with most favor. In England, where B. was generally called Behmen, a translation in 2 vols.

quarto was published in 1764. Sir Isaac Newton studied him; William Law, of Oxford, might be called a disciple; in 1697, Jane Lead, a fanatical disciple of B., founded a sect called the Philadelphists, for the exposition of his writings; and John Pordage, a physician, is also famed among his English interpreters. Abraham von Frankenberg, who died in 1652, published the earliest biography of Böhme. In modern times, and in connection with speculative philosophy in Germany, his views, which had come to be regarded as empty mysticism, have acquired fresh interest and importance. This arises from the kindred character of his fundamental principle with the spirit, pervading the systems of Spinoza, Schelling, and Hegel. The intellectual contemplation of the absolute, out of which the contradictions in the world of phenomena proceed, and into which they return, is common to these systems and to B.; Hegel, indeed, expressly represents B.'s negativity, the active principle of development, as an obscure foreshadowing of his own intuitions, and on that account places him at the head of modern philosophy. The terminology of his philosophy, as will be seen from what we have quoted, is utterly fantastic; but his imagination often conceives splendid ideas, which are more profoundly appreciated in the 19th than they were in the 17th century. See Hamberger's (1844), Fechner's (1857), Peip's (1860), and Hartmann's (1891) works on Böhme.

BOHM VON BAWERK, EUGEN, political economist, b. 1851 at Brünn, Moravia; educated at the University of Vienna, and from 1872-1880 held office under the ministry of finance of Austria-Hungary. In the meanwhile he had studied at Heidelberg, Leipsic and Jena under Knies, Roscher and Hildebrand. He taught at the University of Vienna for a short time but was called thence to the University of Innsbruck, where he remained from 1880 to 1889, holding a professorship from 1884-89. In the latter year he became a ministerial counselor in the ministry of finance. He is one of the leading economists of the so-called Austrian school, and has contributed much to the development of the theory of value. Among his writings, which are read widely in the United States as well as in Europe, may be mentioned Grundzüge der Theorie des Wirtschaftlichen Güterwertes, (1886), and Kapital und Kapitalzins (1884-1889; Eng. trans. by Smart in 1890 under the title of Capital and Interest, A Critical History of Economic Theory).

Mr. B.

BOHN, HENRY G., a well-known author, translator, and publisher, of German parentage, was born in London, Jan. 4, 1796. It is impossible to estimate too highly the services he has rendered to the community by republishing, at a cheap rate, a vast number of the most valuable works in literature, science, philosophy, theology, etc. obtained distinction as the editor of the Bibliotheca Parriana, of Lowndes's Bibliographer's Manual, etc., and as translator of Schiller, Goethe, and Humboldt. He also compiled a Polyglot of Foreign Proverbs, an Illustrated Handbook of Geography, and a Handbook of Pottery and Porcelain. He d. 1884.

BOHOL', or BOOL, one of the Philippine islands, discovered by Magellan in 1521; in lat. 10° n., long. 124° 21′ e.; 46 by 32 m.; produces rice, cotton, cocoanuts, etc.

BÖHTLINGK, OTTO, b. St. Petersburg, 1815; a member of the academy of science and councilor of state; well versed in Sanskrit, Yakut, and Oriental tongues. His main work is a comprehensive Sanskrit-German dictionary, in which he had the assistance of prof. Rudolf Roth, of Tübingen. An abridgment and supplement of this was published in 1889, and in 1890 Dandin's Poetics.

BOHUN UPAS. See UPAS.

BOIARDO, MATTEO MARIA, Count of Scandiano, one of the most celebrated Italian poets, was b. at Scandiano, in 1430 or 1434. His chief work is the romantic chivalrous poem, Orlando Innamorato, which he left unfinished in three books. Former writers had described Orlando only as a cold, pure, champion of Christendom; but B. introduced the element of love, to give an additional charm to romantic adventure. B. furnished to all his poetical successors, even to Ariosto himself, the personages who figure in their adaptations of the old romance. His work was printed sixteen times before 1545, and was translated into French as early as the 16th century. As it was written in the dialect of the court of Ferrara, it failed to give satisfaction to the Florentines. Accordingly, after several attempts had been made to purify its diction, Lodovico Domenichi (died 1564) produced a Riformazione of the poem, 1545, without making any important change in the substance. Berni, in his Rifacimento, proceeded further, and gave to the whole poem a tone of burlesque; but his version enjoyed such popularity that it took the place of the original, which was almost entirely forgotten, until it was republished with introduction and critical observations by Panizzi (9 vols. Lond. 1830), and afterwards by Wagner in his Parnasso Italiano Continuato (Leip. 1833). The other works of B. include Sonetti e Canzoni (Reggio, 1499); Il Timone, a five-act drama (1500); Cinque Capitoli in Terza Rima (1523); and L'Asino d'Oro, a version of the Golden Ass of Appuleius (1523); besides a translation of Herodotus (1533), and of Riccobaldi's Chronicon Romanorum Imperatorum.

BOIELDIEU, ADRIEN FRANÇOIS, an eminent French composer, was b. at Rouen in 1775. His talent for music was early developed. At the age of 18, he brought out a one-act opera in his native town, and two years afterwards he repaired to Paris, where he produced many successful compositions. When the Conservatoire de Musique was established, B. was elected a professor. In 1803, he went to Russia, where he was appointed, by the emperor Alexander, maître de chapelle at the imperial court. He remained in Russia eight years, during which time he produced several operas.

In

1811, he returned to Paris, where he brought out La Dame Blanche, his most popular piece, Jean de Paris, Le Petit Chaperon Rouge, and other works. He died in Oct., 1835; and, as a tribute to his genius, the nation honored him with a public funeral. His native city claimed his heart, and to defray the pomp of its reception in the cathedral, the municipality voted 12,000 francs. The government further marked its sense of his merit by granting a pension to his son.

BOI'I, the name of a Celtic people who at a very remote period seem to have inhabited either the southern part of Belgium, or a portion of France in its immediate vicinity, whence they emigrated to Italy. Having crossed the Po, they established themselves in the territory of the Umbrians, lying between that river and the Apennines, and for some hundreds of years waged a fierce war with the Romans. They were defeated at the Vadimonian lake in 283 B.C.; at Telamon, in Etruria, in 225 B.C., during the great Gallic 'war, of which they were the original cause; rushed into rebellion on hearing of Hannibal's march, joined him at the battle of the Trebia in 218 B.C., destroyed the entire army of the consul Postumius in 216 B.C., took a prominent part in the revolt of the Gauls under Hamilcar, and in the destruction of Placentia, 200 B.C.; but at length, in 191 B.C., they were completely subdued by Scipio Nasica, who, besides killing a vast number, took from them nearly one-half of their land. At a later period, they were dispos sessed of the whole, and driven across the Alps. Their subsequent history and geographical position are not very clear. Those who settled s. of the Danube were, after a century, exterminated by the Dacians; those who returned to Gaul, were destroyed by Cæsar. The most important migration of the B., however, was that to the n. of the Danube, where they founded the extensive kingdom Boiohemum, which was overthrown by the Marcomanni under Marbod. But though the dynasty of the B. was thus destroyed, the kingdom retained the name Boiohemum-i.e., home of the B., whence comes the modern Böhmen, or Bohemia.

BOIL (allied to Lat. bulla, a bubble) is a hard painful swelling of the skin. It begins as a small hard point of a dusky red color, which is hot, painful, and throbbing. This point extends, and these symptoms increase in severity till about the sixth to the ninth day, when it ceases to enlarge, is of a conical form, with a broad firm base, and on the apex a whitish blister, which contains a little matter; this opens, and after a few days more there is discharged a core or slough of cellular tissue, and the small cavity left heals rapidly, leaving a white depressed scar.

Many kinds of boils have been described, but they may, like other diseases of an inflammatory nature, be divided into those which are acute and run a rapid course, as above described; and the chronic, which take three or four weeks to "come to a head." Boils are most common in the spring, and in young and plethoric persons, and their appearance is quite consistent with robust health. Men in training for boat-races, or others who have suddenly changed their diet and daily habits, are said to be very subject to them. There is a form of B. which generally occurs on the back of the neck, after some disorder of the stomach, in elderly people, hence it is called "Old People's Boil." In some, boils continue to succeed each other for a length of time; others are attacked during the night, after having experienced feelings of nausea and languor, by pustules, which are called night-boils (epinyctis).

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The treatment of boils varies with the subject of them: in many, they are merely critical-in other words, a natural effort to relieve some function of the body by a peculiar inflammation of the skin." The intestinal canal should be cleared out by laxative medicines, and the digestive powers improved by tonics and antacids. The skin should be kept healthy by frequent washing, while the inflamed spot should be poulticed with poppy-heads or hemlock, mixed with other materials. Wet lint is a sufficient application after the core has been thrown off. If the patient chooses to submit, however, to a momentary pain, he will have the greatest, most permanent, and immediate relief from a cut carried quite through the boil. John Hunter, the great surgeon, got rid of habitual boils by taking repeated doses of soda in milk.

BOILEAU DESPREAUX, NICOLAS, an illustrious French poet, was b. near Paris, Nov. 1, 1636. After hesitating for some time in the choice of a profession, he betook himself to belles-lettres. In 1660, his fine powers first obtained an adequate expression in the satire, entitled Adieux d'un Poète à la Ville de Paris. In 1666, he published his seven Satires. The favorable reception which they met with, induced him to continue, until he had increased the number to twelve, of which the eighth and ninth are considered the best. In these satires, B. even ventures to castigate the coryphai of the world of letters Chapelain, Cotin, Scudery, etc. To his honor, however, it must be said that malice does not once animate his pen; he is always pleasant and gay, never cruel. His contemporaries are his laughing-stocks, not his victims. Between the years 1669 and 1696 appeared his Twelve Epistles. They indicate a riper genius than the Satires. The versification has more ease and grace; the style, a quicker movement and a firmer consistency; the thoughts are more vigorous, and more strictly concatenated; everywhere there is greater truth, color, and energy. The one addressed to Racine, who, along with B., filled the office of royal historiographer, is reckoned among his finest. In 1674, B. published L'Art Poétique, accompanied by a translation from the Greek of Longinus on The Sublime, and the greater part of Lutrin. These are by many French critics consid

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