Austria.

AUSTRIA, ARCHDUCHY OF, the cradle and nucleus of the Austrian empire, lies on both sides of the Danube, from the mouth of the Inn to Presburg, on the borders of Hungary, and embraces an area of about 15,000 sq. m., with a pop. in 1890 of 3,293,813. It now forms three of the crown-lands, or administrative provinces of the empire-viz., lower and upper Austria (or Austria below, and Austria above the Ens), and the duchy of Salzburg. See AUSTRIA, EMPIRE OF. The s. and w. portions are mountainous; the n. and e. are more level and fertile, containing the great plain of Vienna, the Marchfeld, etc. The pop. is mostly German and Catholic. The chief towns, besides Vienna, are Wiener-Neustadt, Salzburg, Steyer, Linz, and Ischl (q.v.).

AUSTRIA, EMPIRE OF, or AUSTRIA-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY. The Austrian dominions form a compact territory, with a circumference of about 5350 miles. The body of the empire lies in the interior of Europe, though it has about 500 m. of sea-coast on the Adriatic. A. borders on Italy, Switzerland, Bavaria, Saxony, Prussia, Russia, Roumania, Servia, Turkey, and Montenegro. With the sanction of the Berlin congress of 1878, the small territory of Spizza, on the Montenegrin frontier and formerly Turkish, has been incorporated with Dalmatia; the Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, though occupied and also administered by Austria, cannot of course be regarded as part of the Austria-Hungarian monarchy. The following table, taken from the Statesman's Year-Book of 1896, shows the area and population of the empire in 1890.

Bosnia and Herzegovina have an area of 23,262 sq. m. and a pop., 1895, of 1,568,092. Liechtenstein (q.v.) practically belongs to the empire.

This population comprises the military establishment, which was, in 1895, on a war footing, 45,238 officers and 1,826,940 men. The number obliged to serve in the Landsturm in the event of war was over 4,000,000. The naval forces of Austria included, in 1896, 8 battle ships, 8 port-defence ships, 31 cruisers, 56 torpedo boats (11 more building).

The first eleven of these divisions-except a part of Illyria and also part of Galicia— formerly belonged to the German Confederation.

Surface. Three fourths of A. is mountainous, being traversed by three great mountain chains the Alps, Carpathians, and Sudetengebirge (q.v.), whose chief ridges are of primitive rock. The Rhætian and Noric Alps stretch from Switzerland to the Danube, and contain the highest points of the Austrian territories, the Ortler Spitze rising to 12,779 English feet. Their height declines gradually towards the e., where the Leitha hills (3000 ft.), overlooking the plain of Vienna, form the transition to the Carpathians. This chain rises on the left bank of the Danube, near Presburg, and sweeping in a curve, first e., and then southward through Transylvania, again meets the Danube. The highest point is Butschetje, in Transylvania, where a height of 9528 ft. is reached. The central part, or Tatra mountains, are vast granitic masses, resembling the Alps in character; the highest of these is the Lomnitz, in the longitude of Cracow, 8133 feet. The Alps are accompanied, n and s., by parallel ranges of calcareous mountains, covering whole provinces with their ramifications. The Carpathians are lapped on their northern side by sandstone formations; mountains of the same character also occupy Transylvania. Springing from the n.w. bend of the Carpathians, the Sudetes run through the n.e. of Moravia and Bohemia, in which last the range is known as the Riesengebirge, or Giant mountains. The boundary between Bohemia and Prussian Silesia passes over the Schneekoppe, the highest peak of these mountains, which is 5275 ft. in height. Continuous with this range, and beginning on the left bank of the Elbe, are the Erzgebirge, or Ore mountains,

Austria.

on the confines of Saxony; and veering round to nearly s.e., the range is further prolonged in the Bohemian-forest mountains, between Bohemia and Bavaria.-The chief plains of the Austrian empire are the great plains of Hungary (the smaller of these is in the w., between the offsets of the Alps and Carpathians, and is about 4200 sq.m. in extent; the other, which is in the e., and traversed by the Danube and the Theiss, has an area of 21,000 sq.m.), and the plain of Galicia.

From the gulf of Triest to the s. point of Dalmatia, A. has a sea-line of about 1000 m., not counting the coasts of the numerous islands, the largest of which is Veglia, 23 m. by 12. The chief lakes are the Platten see (about 400 sq.m.), and the Neusiedler see (about 100 m.), both in Hungary. The first is navigable by steamers, and both are rich in fish, and have fruitful vineyards around them. The Alps and Carpathians inclose numerous mountain lakes. The Long lake in the Tatra mountains lies at an elevation of 6000 feet. The most remarkable of all is the Zirknitz lake (q.v.) in Illyria. There are extensive swamps or morasses in Hungary. One connected with the Neusiedler see covers some 80 sq. miles. A good deal has been done in draining morasses.

The leading rivers that have navigable tributaries are: the Danube (q.v.), which has a course of 849 m. within the Austrian dominions, from Passau, at the mouth of the Inn, to Orsova, on the frontier of Walachia, and receives, on the right, the Inn, Traun, Ens, Leitha, Raab, Drau, and Save; and, on the left, the March, Waag, Neutra, Gran, Theiss, Bega, and Temes: the Vistula (q.v.), with its tributary the Bug: the Elbe (q.v.), with the Moldau and Eger: the Dniester and Adige (q.v.) have no navigable tributaries; this last, which rises in the Rhætian Alps, and flows past the famous city of Trent, enters Lombardy above Verona, and confers on that country the benefits of what commercial importance it possesses-being navigable only up to a point below Legnago. The Rhine only bounds the empire for about 14 m. above Lake Constance. The Isonzo, Zermagna, Kerka, and Narenta flow into the Adriatic. In 1894, in Austria, the total length of navigable rivers and canals was 4,090 miles, but of this only 814 miles were navigable for steamers, the rest floating only rafts and small vessels. In Hungary the total length of navigable rivers was 3050 miles.

The canal system of Austria is in general not extensive. Canal construction is comparatively recent. The chief canals are the Vienna and Neustadt, in lower Austria; the Bacser or Franz canal, between the Danube and Theiss in Hungary; and the Bega canal, constructed by the Romans, between the Bega and Temes.

The climate of A. is on the whole very favorable; but from the extent and diversity of surface, it presents great varieties. In the warmest southern region, between 42° to 46° lat., rice, olives, oranges, and lemons ripen in the better localities; and wine and maize are produced everywhere. In the middle, temperate region, from 46° to 49°, which has the greatest extent and diversity of surface, wine and maize still thrive in perfection. In the northern region, beyond 49°, except in favored spots, neither wine nor maize succeeds; but grain, fruit, flax, and hemp thrive excellently. The mean temperature of the year is, at Triest, 58° F.; at Vienna, 51°; at Lemberg, in Galicia, 44°.

The raw products of Austria-Hungary are abundant and various; and in this respect it is one of the most favored countries in Europe. What one province lacks, another supplies. Its mineral wealth is very great. Mining has been a favorite pursuit in A. for centuries, and has been encouraged and promoted by the government. Hungary, and the Austrian provinces of Bohemia, Silesia, Styria, Moravia, Carinthia and Carniola take the first place in respect to mineral produce. Almost all the useful minerals are found, including coal, mined in Bohemia, Silesia, Moravia, Galicia, Styria, Upper Austria and Carniola; iron, in Styria, Bohemia, Carinthia, Moravia and Galicia; silver in Bohemia; quicksilver in Carniola; copper in Salzburg; lead in Styria, Galicia, Bohemia; salt, in Galicia, Upper Austria and the Coast Land; zine in Galicia, Carinthia, Tyrol and Vorarlberg, etc. Gold is found both in Austria and in Hungary. Other minerals found in various parts of the empire are sulphur ore and alum slates, tin, bismuth, manganese, antimony, arsenic, uranium and asphalt. The chief minerals produced in the Hungarian provinces are coal and lignite, salt, silver, gold, lead, copper, and iron ore. Of the minerals obtained in the Empire by far the most important is coal, the larger part of which is produced in the Austrian provinces. The annual output of common coal in Austria increased from 30,401,000 florins in 1890 to 34,100,000 florins in 1895; of brown coal from 27,639,000 florins in 1890 to 34,900,000 florins in 1895. In Hungary the increase in the annual output from 1890 to 1895 was from 4,831,000 florins to 5,640,000 florins, common coal; and 6,835,000 florins to 11,218,000 florins, brown coal. In 1894 the mining works of Austria employed 127,506 persons; the smelting works, 15,735 persons. The mining and smelting works of Hungary (1889) employed 48,173 persons. In 1889 the total value of mining products in Austria was 58,939,809 florins; in 1894, 79,671,551 florins. The total value of the furnace products in the same years was 32,748,497 florins and 35,126,161 florins respectively. The value of the coal produce in 1895 was nearly of the total value of the mining and furnace products of Austria. The leading mineral of Hungary is iron, of which the output in 1895 was 12,490,000 florins. In 1893 the gold mined amounted to 2,790,222 florins, and the silver to 2,120,052 florins. In 1895 Austria produced 181,134 metre-centners of silver ore; Hungary only 17,357 metre-centners. In the same year Austria produced 1039 metrecentners of gold ore.

Austria-Hungary is peculiarly rich in salt. Rock-salt exists in immense beds on both sides of the Carpathians, in the county of Marmaros in Hungary, and in Transylvania. Salt is also made by state salt-works by evaporating the water of salt-springs, and from sea-water on the coasts of the Adriatic. The sale of salt is in A. a government monopoly. Of other salts, alum, sulphate of iron, and sulphate of copper are the chief. A. has an abundance of mineral springs, frequented for their health-giving properties. Many of them are of European reputation, such as the sulphurous baths of Baden, in lower A., the saline waters of Karlsbad, Marienbad, and Ofen, etc.

The useful earths and building stones are to be had in great profusion; all sorts of clay up to the finest porcelain earth (in Moravia, Bohemia, and Hungary), and likewise marble, gypsum, chalk, etc. Of precious and semi-precious stones are the Hungarian opal (which passes in commerce as oriental), Bohemian garnets (the finest in Europe), carnelians, agates, beryl, amethyst, jasper, ruby, sapphire, topaz, etc. In 1885, oil wells of great productiveness were opened at Kolomea, in Galicia, and heavy duties are now laid on petroleum for the benefit of these wells and to encourage refining.

The vegetable productions, as might be expected from the varied character of its soil and the position of the different provinces, are extremely various. Although three-fourths of the surface is mountainous, more than five-sixths is productive, being used either for tillage, meadows, pasture, or forest. Of the total area of forest in Austria more than two-thirds is under pines and other trees suited to high altitudes, and in Hungary the proportion is about the same. The forests are chiefly situated in the Carpathians, Alps, and central mountains of Austria-Hungary. The administration of the forests and domains belonging to the state is in the hands of the administrators of forests and domains, which has under it an extensive association of forestry officials and schools of forestry; the direction of forests and domains, and the ministry of agriculture. Grain of all kinds is cultivated, most abundantly in Hungary and the districts s. of it on the Danube; in Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, and Galicia. Agriculture is not yet far advanced; the prevaili ng system is still what is called the three-field system, introduced into Germany by Charlemagne, in which a crop of winter wheat is followed by one of summer grain, and that by fallow. In Hungary the Magyar adheres to his primitive husbandry, the German and Slav are adopting rational methods. Rice is cultivated in the Banat, but not enough for the consumption. Potatoes are raised everywhere; and in elevated districts are often the sole subsistence of the inhabitants. Horticulture is carried to great perfection; and the orchards of Bohemia, A. proper, Tyrol, and many parts of Hungary, produce a profusion of fruit. Great quantities of cider are made in upper A. and Carinthia, and of plum brandy in Slavonia. In Dalmatia, oranges and lemons are produced, but not sufficient for the requirements of the country; twice as much olive-oil is imported as is raised in the monarchy.

In the production of wine, A. is second only to France. With the exception of Galicia, Silesia, and upper A., the vine is cultivated in all the provinces; but Hungary stands first, and yields the finest quality of wine. The produce of the whole empire was estimated in 1895 at about 129,030,000 gallons. In 1894 the value of the wine exported was 5,400,000 florins.

There is a considerable production of plants used in manufactures and commerce. Flax is cultivated in Austria; hemp both in Austria and Hungary; sugar-beet in Austria; hops in Bohemia. Tobacco is raised in great quantities, especially in Hungary, which also is first in the cultivation of rape-seed. The indigo plant has been successfully acclimatized in Dalmatia. The extensive forests besides tinfber, yield a number of secondary products, as tar, potash, charcoal, bark, cork, etc.

As to animals, bears are found in the Carpathians, Alps, and Dalmatia; wolves, jackals, and lynxes in these same districts, and also in the Banat, Croatia, Slavonia, and the military frontiers. The marmot, otter, and beaver are also found in Dalmatia. Game has of late sensibly diminished. The wild goat lives in the highest, the chamois and white Alpine hare in the middle, regions of the Alps and Carpathians. More productive than the chase are the fisheries of the Danube, Theiss, and numerous streams, lakes, and ponds. The chief sea-fishing is in Dalmatia. Leeches, procured chiefly in Hungary and Moravia, form an article of considerable trade. For foreign commerce an important branch of industry is the rearing of silk. By the law of 1885 silk culture is under the exclusive control of the government. The exports of silk wares in 1894 were valued at 6,500,000 florins.

The breeding of domestic animals has not yet advanced to what the home wants require. In some districts it is excellent, in others quite neglected. Horse-breeding is promoted by what are called "military studs." Besides a number of imperial studs, there are a great many private establishments, especially in Hungary, for the same purpose. The supply of black-cattle is not equal to the demand; great numbers are furnished by Hungary and Galicia. The breeding of sheep, like that of horses, has been a special object of care to the government. The finer wools are furnished by Moravia, Bohemia, Silesia, lower A., and great part of Hungary and Galicia. The great mass is, however, composed of what is known as middling and inferior sorts. Goats are reared chiefly in Dalmatia, and swine in Hungary. The total value of the Austrian live stock exceeds 487,000,000 florins. Both in Austria and Hungary the export of horses, cattle.

Austria.

and sheep greatly exceeds the imports. Over one-half of the population are engaged in husbandry, so that A. is decidedly an agricultural state, though its capabilities in this respect have by no means been fully developed.

The population is very unequally distributed. The most populous districts are those of the s.w. and of the n.w. The Alpine regions and those of the Carpathians are the sparsest; and generally the density diminishes toward the east. At the end of 1888 Austria had besides Vienna, 4 cities of above 100,000 inhabitants, and 15 others with more than 20,000. Vienna was found by special census in 1888 to have, with suburbs, 1,350,000; on Dec. 31, 1890 it contained 1,364,548. The population of Austria embraces a greater number of races, distinct in origin and language, than that of any other European country except Russia. The proportions in this respect are here given from the official statements of 1890. The Slavs are the most numerous race, amounting to 19,140,000, over 46 per cent. of the whole population in 1890. They form the bulk of the population of Bohemia, Moravia, Carniola, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, the military frontiers, the Woiwodina, the n. of Hungary, and Galicia. They are, however, split up into a number of peoples or tribes, differing greatly in language, religion, culture, and manners; so that their seeming preponderance in the empire is thus lost. The chief branches of the Slavic stem are the northern Czechs (the most numerous of all), Ruthenes, and Poles, the southern Slovenians, Croats, Serbs, and Bulgarians. The Germans numbered 10,568,000, or above 25 per cent. They are dispersed over the empire, but predominate most in the duchy of A., Salzburg, Tyrol, Styria, Carinthia, west Hungary, etc. The Romanic peoples (speaking languages derived from that of ancient Rome) are divided into western and eastern. To the first, the Germans give the general name of Welsch. They consist of Italians, inhabiting the s. of Tyrol, Istria, and Dalmatia; the Ladins (Latins) occupying some valleys in Tyrol; and the Friauls about Görtz, n. of Triest. The eastern Roumanians are the Valaks or Wallachians, styled by themselves Rumuni, who are found in Transylvania, Hungary, the Woiwodina, Bukowina, and military frontiers. The Roumanians in the empire numbered 2,801,000, in 1890; the Italians, 695,000. The Magyars, or Hungarians proper, numbered 7,439,000: they are located chiefly in Hungary and Transylvania; also in the Woiwodina, and a few in Croatia and Slavonia. The small remaining portion are composed chiefly of Jews, Armenians, and Tsigani or gypsies, the last named numbering 95,000 in 1890.

As to religion, the great bulk of the nation is Roman Catholic. By the census of 1890 there were 27,754,000 Roman Catholics; of Greeks and Armenians in union with the church of Rome, 4,485,000; not in union, 3,178,000. The Protestants of all denominations numbered 3,933,000; and of Israelites there were 1,868,000. The empire is divided into archbishoprics, bishoprics, Protestant superintendencies and parishes. The statutes of December 21, 1867, and May 25, 1868, regulate the relations of the state through religious bodies. The sovereign has certain rights arising from the dignity of his office, but the law insures religious liberty and the independence of the church from the state. There is no religious test as a qualification for the possession of civil and political rights, and liberty of conscience is secure. The religious bodies have the legal right to manage their own affairs, and to possess funds, estates, or endowments for the purposes of worship, instruction or charity. Any religious organization can secure legal recognition from the Minister for Ecclesiastical Affairs if there is nothing in its doctrine, mode of worship, or constitution which transgresses the laws or offends morality.

Education, since 1849, is under the care of a minister of public worship and instruction. As compared with other German states, the education of A. presents some peculiarities. There is a greater prevalence of establishments where the pupils both live and receive instruction; also of schools for special callings. Instruction, again, whether high or low, is mostly gratuitous, or of trifling cost, being provided from general or local public funds. The government has made liberal allowance for elementary education. Another peculiarity is the sway of the clergy, both in schools and universities. The primary schools are, to a very large extent, in their hands. The number of elementary schools has increased greatly in recent times. The law enforces compulsory attendance at the Volks-schulen," or national schools, of all children between certain ages (generally 6 and 14); and parents are liable to be punished for neglecting to send them. Hungary is still backward in elementary education. The subjects taught in the elementary schools of Austria are religion, reading, writing, language, arithmetic, elementary geometry, natural history, and physics, geography, history, drawing, singing, and gymnastics. The expense of maintaining the elementary schools is defrayed in different ways in different parts of the empire, but ultimately falls on the communes or the land. The state supports the elementary schools only in a few special cases. In Austria in 1894 the attendance of the elementary schools was 3,312,530, and the number of teachers was 68,038; in Hungary (1895), 2,540,183 pupils in attendance, 28,731 teachers. The Gymnasia and Realschulen, with courses extending over 8 and 7 years respectively, prepare students for the universities and the technical high schools. They were generally maintained by the state, by separate provinces, or by the larger communes. In the whole empire in 1894, there were 331 Gymnasia, having 6,302 teachers and 98,193 pupils; 110 Realschulen having 2,245 teachers and 32,426 pupils. There are 11 universities in