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CANISTER SHOT-CANNIBAL.

of this star. According to Flamsteed, it contains seed, and hooked or spiral embryo. But only two in all 14 stars.

CA'NISTER SHOT. See CASE SHOT. CA'NKER, a disease of plants, especially fatal to fruit-trees in many gardens. It is a kind of gangrene, usually beginning in the young shoots and branches, and gradually proceeding towards the trunk, killing the tree in the course of a few years. Wet subsoils seem in many cases to induce it, and it begins most readily in shoots that have been imperfectly ripened and injured by frost, or which have received some accidental wound. Those varieties of fruit-trees which have been long propagated by grafting and budding are most liable to it. It is sometimes cured by heading down the tree, and causing it to throw out new branches.

CANKER, a vague term applied to various diseases of the lower animals, characterised by their chronic nature, and consisting chiefly in ulceration, suppuration, and the development of fungoid excrescences in the parts affected."

CANKER, in the foot of the horse. This malady, believed by Gerlach of Berlin to be truly cancerous, is observed in two different forms: in the acute stage, when the malady is chiefly local; and in the chronic stage, when the constitution suffers, and all local remedies fail to restore a healthy function of the structures of the foot.

Symptoms. It usually commences by discharge from the heels, or the cleft of the frog of the horse's foot. The horn becomes soft and disintegrated, the vascular structures beneath become inflamed, and the pain which the animal endures is intolerable. It is therefore very lame on one, two, or all feet, according to the number affected. Though there is no constitutional fever, the horse becomes emaciated, and unfit for work. During wet weather, and on damp soil, the symptoms increase in severity: The sore structures bleed on the least touch, and considerable fungoid granulations, commonly called proud flesh, form rapidly.

Causes. This disease is occasionally hereditary, and it is most frequently seen in low-bred draught or coach horses. Dirt, cold, and wet, favour the production of the disease, and there is always a tendency to relapse when once an animal has been

affected.

Treatment.-Pare away detached portions of horn, and, in mild cases, sprinkle powdered acetate of copper over the sore; apply over this pledgets of tow, fixed over the foot by strips of iron or wood passed between shoe and foot. In severe cases, tar and nitric acid, creasote and turpentine, chloride of zinc paste, and other active caustics, have to be used for a time with the regular employment of pressure on the diseased surface. The animal requires to be treated constitutionally by periodical purgatives and alteratives. Good food, fresh air, and exercise often aid much in the treatment of the disease.

plants of the order or sub-order are known, both of them valuable, HEMP (q. v.) and the Hop (q.v.).

CA'NNÉ (ancient Canna), a town of Naples, in the province of Terra di Bari, 8 miles west-southwest of Barletta, not far from the mouth of the Ofanto, formerly the Aufidus. It is celebrated on account of the great victory here gained by Hannibal over the Romans in the summer of 216 B. C. Hannibal crossed the Aufidus at a ford, and attacked the Romans, who in a short time were almost annihilated by the terrible Numidian cavalry. Among those left on the field were Paulus Æmilius, the consul of the previous year; Minucius, the late Master of the Horse; and a vast number of Roman knights. The loss of the Romans is stated by Livy at 45,000 infantry and 3000 cavalry. As Hannibal lost in the battle 8000 men, he did not think it prudent to follow the advice of Maharbal, and advance rapidly on Rome. Twenty thousand Romans were made prisoners, partly on the field of battle and partly in the

camp.

CANNES, a seaport town of France, in the department of Var, pleasantly situated on the Mediterranean, on the road to Nice. It is famed for its salubrity, which has induced a number of English families to make it a winter residence ; Lord Brougham, among others, has a fine villa here. Latterly, the town has been much improved. It has fisheries of anchovies and sardines, and a trade in the produce of the district. After his escape from Elba, Bonaparte landed about a mile and a half to the east of C., March 1, 1815. Pop. 5000.

CA'NNIBAL (derived from a variety in the spelling of Caribs, the original inhabitants of the West India Islands, who were reputed to be maneaters, and some tribes of whom, having no r in their language, pronounced their name Canib), which is often used instead of it, one who feeds means, like the Greek word anthropophagos, on human flesh. The practice is often attributed by classical and early Christian writers to races whose practices they denounce as abominable; but the denunciation is often better evidence of the abhorrence of cannibalism by those making the accusation than of its practice by the accused. Homer makes Polyphemus eat men, but only as one of his other unnatural attributes as a monster. The early Christian writers frequently attributed cannibalism to the unconverted. St Jerome gives his personal testimony to the practice, stating that when he was a little boy living in Gaul he beheld the Scots-a people of Britain-eating human flesh; and though there were plenty of cattle and sheep at their disposal, yet would they prefer a ham of the herdsman or a piece of female breast as a luxury. Statements in old authors still more absurd induced some thinkers to believe that cannibalism is unnatural, and to deny that it was ever practised by human beings except under the pressure of starvation. The accurate observation of late travellers has, however, put it beyond doubt that cannibalism has been and is systematically practised. Comte, as part of his system of positive philosophy, accepting of cannibalism as a condition of barbarism, maintains that the greatest step in human civilisation was the invention of slavery, since it put an end to the victor eating the vanquished. The facts, however, which we possess, CANNABINA'CEÆ, a natural order of Dicoty- shew that the people systematically addicted to ledonous plants, or, according to many, a sub-order human flesh are not the most degraded of the of URTICACEE (q. v.), differing from the proper human race. For instance, in the Australian contiUrticaceae chiefly in the suspended exalbuminous | nent, where the larger animals are scarce, the people,

CA'NNA, one of the islands of the Hebrides, off the west coast of Scotland, 7 miles south-west of Skye, and 3 miles north-west of Rum. It belongs to Argyleshire, and is 4 miles long from east to west, and 1 mile broad. The surface stands high above the sea, and consists of trap (claystone, porphyry, and trap conglomerate, with fragments of old red sandstone and bituminous wood), which has overflowed thin laminae of coal and shale. The island has a hill of basalt, called Compass Hill, which reverses the magnetic needle.

CANNIBAL-CANNING.

who are of an extremely degraded type, feed on worms and herbs, and have only been known in casual and exceptional conditions to feed on human flesh. The New Zealanders, on the other hand, who are the most highly developed aboriginal race with which late European civilisation has had to compete, were, down to a late period, systematic feeders on human flesh, despising the inefficient food which satisfied the natives of Australia. In Angas's New Zealand Illustrated, there is a picture of the country mansion of the accomplished chief Rangihaeta, one of the finest specimens,' says the author, of elaborately ornamented dwellings yet extant.' Its name is Kai Tangata, which means, Eat man; and it had been so called in pleasing memorial of the feasts held within its walls. It has been supposed that the reason why, among the Jews and several eastern nations, the eating of swine's flesh was forbidden as an unclean food, was its resemblance to human flesh, and the danger that persons accustomed to the one might not retain their abhorrence of the other. In the Crusades, the Saracens charged their Christian enemies with eating unclean food, including flesh of men and of swine. In the old romance of Richard Coeur de Lion, he is represented, on recovering from sickness, as longing for a piece of pork; but that not being procurable, a piece of a Saracen's head was substituted for it, and pronounced by him to be infinitely more palatable. There have been many sad instances where people who naturally had a horror of such food, have been driven by starvation to eat human flesh-as in sieges and shipwrecks. Besides these instances, however, and the systematic cannibals, there is no doubt that people not otherwise habituated to the practice, have been excited by ferocity and revenge to eat, and with relish, the flesh of enemies. In many of the cannibal countries, only the flesh of enemies is consumed. As an instance that this is a natural development of ferocity in degraded natures, we may take the fate of the Princess Lamballe in the French Revolution, whose heart was plucked out by one of the savages of the mob, taken to a restaurant, and there cooked and eaten by him. The great Highland chief, Sir Ewen Cameron of Lochiel, in a death-struggle with an English trooper, killed him by biting a piece out of his throat, and used to say it was the sweetest morsel he had ever tasted.

against Mr Tierney's motion regarding peace with the French Directory, the latter of which, especially, was regarded as a master-piece of eloquence, alike by the House and the country. În the debates on the Habeas Corpus Suspension Act, the union with Ireland, and other important questions, C. gave valuable assistance to the ministry, not only by his voice in parliament, but by his pen in a satirical paper, called the Anti-Jacobin, in which he especially lashed the New Philosophy,' as it was called, promulgated by the French republicans. The Knife Grinder is one of the best known and happiest of his efforts in this line. In 1801, Pitt resigned office, and C. joined the opposition against the Addington ministry. When Pitt again became premier in 1804, C. was made treasurer of the navy, an office which he held until Pitt's death in 1806. His opposition to the short-lived Grenville ministry which succeeded, savoured of the bitterness of party feeling, and his treatment of Fox in his last days, and of his memory after his death, was far from generous. When the Portland ministry was formed in 1807, C. was appointed Minister for Foreign Affairs, a position for which he was specially qualified, and his dispatches, written at this time, are models of manliness and lucidity. In 1812 all his eloquence was enlisted in favour of Catholic emancipation. During the same year he was elected for Liverpool, for which he was again returned three successive times. In 1814 he went as ambassador to Lisbon, returned in 1816, and was made President of the Board of Control, and supported the Liverpool ministry in all their arbitrary and repressive measures until 1820, when he resigned, in consequence of the action of the government against Queen Caroline. Nominated Governor-general of India in 1822, he was on the eve of departure when the suicide of the Marquis of Londonderry called him to the head of Foreign Affairs. In this capacity, C. conferred lasting benefits on his country. He infused a more liberal spirit into the cabinet, he asserted the independence of British politics against the diplomacy that would have entangled the nation with the Holy Alliance, and gave a new direction and impetus to commercial affairs by a gradual laying aside of the prohibitive system. He arranged the relations of Brazil and Portugal; drew the French cabinet into agreement with the British respecting Spanish American CANNING, GEORGE, a distinguished British affairs; was the first to recognise the free states of statesman and orator, was born in London, April Spanish America; promoted the treaty combining 11, 1770. His father, who was descended from an England, France, and Russia, for a settlement of the ancient family, incurred the displeasure of his affairs of Greece, and which was signed July 6, relatives for marrying beneath his station, and died 1827; protected Portugal from Spanish invasion; in poverty when his son was only a year old. His contended earnestly for Catholic emancipation; and mother (who for a subsistence tried the stage, with prepared the way for a repeal of the corn-laws. but little success, married an actor, and subse- In February 1827, a stroke of paralysis forced the quently a linen-draper) lived to rejoice in the success Earl of Liverpool to resign, and Mr C. was called and participate in the good-fortune of her boy, upon to form a new administration. His health, whose education was liberally provided by an uncle. however, gave way under the cares of office, and he C. was first educated at Eton, from which he died 8th August of the same year. His remains passed, at the age of 17, to Christ's Church College, were interred in Westminster Abbey, near those of Oxford, where he greatly distinguished himself, Pitt. As a parliamentary orator, C. holds a promiespecially in classics. While here, he cultivated the nent place in British annals. His acuteness of mind, friendship of the Hon. Charles Jenkinson (after- power of expression, and well-pointed wit, were wards Lord Liverpool), who was of considerable remarkable; but, on the whole, he was inferior service to him in after-life. From Oxford he went to Pitt, Burke, and Fox. He lacked the imposing to Lincoln's Inn, but on the suggestion of Burke, as characteristics of the first, the overpowering enthuit is said, he soon relinquished the bar for a parlia-siasm of the second, and the winning address of the mentary career. He entered the House for New- last. He was intensely British, and his foreign port, Isle of Wight, in 1793, as the protégé and policy was of the character best calculated to supporter of the minister, Pitt. In 1796, he was promote British interests. appointed an under-secretary of state. It was not, however, until 1798 that C. made a reputation as an orator and a statesman, by his speeches in favour of the abolition of the slave-trade, and

His speeches have been reprinted in 6 vols. 8vo, by Therry, and several memoirs, including one by his private secretary, Mr Stapleton, have been published.

CANNING-CANNON.

CANNING, CHARLES JOHN, VISCOUNT, second son of the above statesman, was born December 1812. Educated at Eton and Oxford, he succeeded to the peerage as Viscount C. on his mother's death in 1837, his elder brother, who was a captain in the navy, having been drowned at Madeira in 1828. In 1841 he became Under-secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in Sir Robert Peel's government, and afterwards Commissioner of Woods and Forests. When Lord Aberdeen came into office, he was made Postmaster-general; and in the beginning of 1856, he succeeded Lord Dalhousie as Governor-general of India. His conduct during the awful crisis of the Indian mutiny was decried at the

time by many as weak and pusillanimous; but the general opinion now, when all the circumstances of the case are better known, is that he acted with singular courage, moderation, and judiciousness. [He died in London, 17th June 1862.]

CANNING, SIR STRATFORD. See STRATFORD DE REDCLIFFE, VISCOUNT.

CA'NNON, is a general name for large pieces of ordnance or artillery, as distinguished from those pieces which can be held in the hand while being fired. No military weapon in use before the invention of gunpowder can fairly come under this designation; they were more generally of the kinds

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described under BALISTA. At what exact date C. | ordnance now, or rather recently, in use in the were first used is not known; but C., called 'crakys British service, army and navy :

of war,' were employed by Edward III. against the Scots in 1327, by the French at the siege of Puy Guillaume in 1338, and by Edward III. at Crecy,

Kind.

Long Iron Guns,

Iron Howitzers,

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and at Calais in 1346. Figs. 1 and 2 represent early Iron Shell Guns, forms of English C., and fig. 3 a mode of mounting the C. on carriages. The first C. or bombards were clumsy, wider at the mouth than at the chamber, and made of iron bars hooped together with iron rings. The balls fired from them were first made of stone, afterwards superseded by iron. In the 15th c., various kinds were known by the names of C., bombards, culverins, serpentines, &c. Bombards of Long Brass Guns, great length and power were employed by Louis XI. during his Flemish campaign in 1477, some with stone balls, some with iron. About this time, C. began to be made by casting instead of with hooped bars; and bronze or brass as a material began to Brass Howitzers, be used as well as iron. The C. of the 16th c. were generally smaller, but better finished, than those of the 15th. The largest C. made in the 17th c., so far as is known, was the Bejapoor cast-iron gun, 'Malick é Meidan,' or 'Lord of the Plain,' made either by Aurangzebe or by the Mahrattas; it was 14 feet long, 28 inches bore, and required a ball of 1600 lbs. weight. From the time of the great European wars in that century, C. have undergone Brass Mortars, vast improvements, as well as the science and art of artillery necessary for their management. Major Straith, a leading authority on this matter, gives the following tabular view of the chief kinds of the novelties introduced within the last few years

Iron Carronades,

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CANNON-CANNON-BALL TREE.

are not here included. Nevertheless the table will be useful for occasional reference. The apparent inconsistencies in length and weight are due to the great differences in thickness of metal; and if we were to go beyond the limits of the table, we should find that, during half a century, iron 32-pounders have varied from 63 down to so low as 25 cwt., and 24-pounders from 50 to 33 cwt.; in each case the length and weight varying, while the calibre remained constant. In the above table, the calibre is not always precisely the same for the same weight of ball; as instanced by the 32-pounders, which have 6-2, 6-3, and 64 inches calibre; this is due to the fact that some guns have more windage, or space round the ball, than others.

In England, during the last few years, great expense has been incurred in replacing old C. by others of larger power and calibre; while the French are gradually bringing about a limitation in the number of kinds and sizes, for the sake of simplicity.

This being merely a general or collective notice of all kinds of C. as a class, particulars concerning each kind will be found under such headings as ARMSTRONG GUN, CARRONADE, GUN, HOWITZER, LANCASTER GUN, MORTAR, SHELL GUN, &c.

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CANNON, ALLOYS FOR. The material generally used for the manufacture of ordnance is bronze (q. v.), consisting of about 90 parts of copper to about 10 parts of tin. In the casting of small C., such as 8-pounders, the alloy used contains 924 parts of copper to 7 parts of tin; while in the larger C. the tin is increased until the proportion reaches 88 to 12. The presence of the tin increases the hardness of the alloy, but this is obtained at the expense of the tenacity. Great care must be taken to insure the purity of the copper and the tin. lead is present, the alloy is always more or less soft, and, moreover, liable to fuse after repeated explosions; while the presence of a mere trace of sulphur, arsenic, phosphorus, &c., renders the alloy very brittle. The finest and best kinds of tin are those known as Cornish or as Banca tin, which are almost free from lead, &c. It is customary, in the casting of C., to use up old C. or other bronze implements, so as to form a beginning of the fused metal in the furnace, and then to add little by little the extra amount of copper and tin. This mode of procedure is followed, owing to the difficulty found in getting copper and tin to amalgamate readily, so as to yield an alloy of uniform composition. This point is of great importance in the casting of ordnance, as the metals, when not properly alloyed, are liable to separate during cooling, and yield a C. of variable composition throughout.

CANNON FOUNDING is a very important manufacture, requiring a careful application of metallurgic processes. In 1856, the government invited iron smelters to send specimens of iron to the Royal Gun Factory at Woolwich, to test the capabilities of English metal for the manufacture of good guns. After three years of almost incessant experiments, it was announced, in 1859, that Netherton and Parkhead iron from Staffordshire, Bowling iron from Yorkshire, Blaenavon iron from Monmouthshire, and some other kinds, possess as many good qualities for the purpose as any foreign iron whatever-a decision which was as unexpected as it was welcome.

There are now many important questions under discussion concerning the manufacture of large ordnance. Whether cast-iron, or wrought-iron bars bound together with iron-hoops; whether iron, or steel; whether steel outside of iron, or iron outside of steel; whether iron or brass; if cast, whether cast

hollow or solid; whether to be made for breechloading or for muzzle-loading; whether for smooth bore or rifled bore-these are points on which elabo rate and costly experiments are being made. Some of the results will be noticed under the particular kinds of ordnance to which they more especially relate.

When the earlier guns, made of hooped bars, were superseded by cast guns, the latter were always cast hollow; but a French founder, in 1749, discovered a mode of boring guns cast solid. Ever since that time, cannon have been more frequently cast solid than hollow, under a belief that the texture of the metal is rendered closer by this arrangement. This, as well as many other questions relating to the manufacture of large ordnance, is at the present day undergoing reconsideration.

British iron cannon were wholly made by contract until within the last few years, mostly at the great works in Yorkshire and Staffordshire, and at Carron in Scotland; but a large factory has recently been established within the arsenal at Woolwich, and the government has to some extent acquired the power of lowering the price and expediting the supply. The casting does not differ much in detail from that of other large masses of iron-work. There is a central pattern or model of well-seasoned wood, or of iron; there is an exte rior casting-box, or jacket of iron; and there is a mass of well-compacted sand and clay, or sand and coke-dust, in the annular space between the pattern and the jacket. annulus of sand are built up piecemeal, so that the The jacket and the mould shall be vertical in the casting-pit, with the muzzle upwards. At Woolwich there are furnaces, each of which would contain molten metal enough for a large gun, such as a 68-pounder; but

it is deemed better to melt in two furnaces for

the larger castings, and to let the two streams flow together into the mould. An additional mass of iron is left at the top, to compress the metal of the cannon by its weight when in the liquid state. After a due length of time for cooling, the jacket is opened and removed, the annulus of sand is knocked off, and the cannon is bored within and turned without, until the proper degree of smoothness is attained. In boring, according to some plans, the gun revolves, while the cutter is stationary; in others, the cutter revolves, while the gun is stationary. The cutter is a strong sharp steel tool at the end of a long bar; and a train of mechanism drives it onwards as fast as the bore is made. If the gun be cast hollow, the boring is only a kind of scraping of the interior; but if solid, the whole calibre is formed by a long-continued action of the cutter, which brings off the metal in fine fragments.

All the brass guns for British service are made by the government at Woolwich. The metal is in reality bronze, not brass (see preceding article). The general processes are similar to those for iron ordnance, with modifications depending partly on the smaller size of the guns, and partly on the characteristics of the metal. In France, brass guns are used much more largely than in England; they are lighter, stronger, and more durable than those of iron; and it is a question now largely discussed among military men, whether brass guns are or are not worth the greatly increased cost which they involve.

Certain peculiarities in the manufacture of special kinds of ordnance are noticed in the articles relating to them.

CA'NNON-BALL TREE (Couroupita Guian ensis), a tree of the natural order Lecythidacea, a native of Guiana, of great size, the trunk being often more than two feet in diameter. It has large

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CANNSTADT-CANON.

ovate-oblong leaves; the flowers are produced in racemes, they are white and rose-coloured; and the fruit is large, about the size of a 36-pound shot,' nearly round. The hard woody shell of this fruit is used for drinking-vessels.

CANNSTADT, a town of Würtemberg, beauti. fully situated on the Neckar, about 3 miles northeast of Stuttgart. It owes its origin to the Romans, of whose presence there are still found many traces. It has numerous mineral springs, discharging 800,000 cubic feet of water in the 24 hours, which are much frequented during the season; manufactures of woollens, cottons, tobacco, &c.; and a large trade by means of the Neckar. Pop.

5350.

In the opinion of Fuseli, he excelled all his contemporaries except Velasquez. His eminence in the three departments of the fine arts sculpture, painting, and architecture-obtained for him the hyperbolical honour of being called the Michael Angelo of Spain. His pictures, marked by graceful design and pleasing colouring, are very numerous, and are preserved in Granada, Seville, Madrid, Malaga, and other Spanish cities.

CANOE,* is a boat made of a hollowed trunk of a tree, or of the bark shaped and strengthened. Canoes have been made large enough to carry twenty or thirty hogsheads of sugar. Some have decks, and carry sail of rush or silkx-grass; but they are generally open boats, rowed by paddles, and steered by an oar. They are seldom wide enough for two men to sit abreast, but vary greatly in length. Near sea-coasts, canoes are often made of light woodenframes, covered with seal-skins, which are also drawn across as a deck, with only a hole left for one man to sit in. In the Hudson's Bay Territories, canoes are used which are light enough to be carried over the portages, or portions of river too shallow for navigation. Canoes, hollowed out of the trunks of oaks, seem to have been in use among the early inhabitants of the British Islands. They have been dug up in considerable numbers in England, Scotland, and Ireland. They appear to have been chiefly of two sorts-one about 10 feet long, with square ends, and projecting handles; the other, about 20 feet long, sometimes sharp at both ends, sometimes round at the prow and square at ANCIENT CANOE.

CA'NO, ALONSO, an illustrious Spanish painter, the founder of the School of Granada, in which city he was born, March 1601. He received his first instructions in the principles of art from his father, Miguel Cano, who was an architect; studied sculpture under J. Montanes, and painting under Pacheco and Juan de Castillo; and attained celebrity so early, that, in 1638 or 1639, he was appointed court painter and architect to the king. C. was of a hasty temper, and was accused of having murdered his wife in a fit of violent jealousy, but the accusation appears to have been quite groundless. He was, however, subjected to the torture; but no confession having been elicited, he was acquitted and received again into the royal favour, named residentiary of Granada, and spent his last years in acts of devotion and charity. He died at Granada in 1664 or 1667.

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the stern. The accompanying wood-cut shews one of this last variety, dug out of a marsh in Sussex. CA'NON, a word originally Greek, and signifying a measuring-rod (see CANOE-foot-note), applied in various arts and sciences to what serves for a rule or standard, but particularly employed to designate collectively those books which constitute the Holy Scripture, and are accepted by Christians as a rule of faith. See BIBLE. In ecclesiastical language, the word canon signifies, besides, not only a church-precept, but also the decree of a universal council, which is held valid as law. See CANON LAW. At one period the word was used to designate the prayers which the Roman Catholic priests said before, at, and after the consecration of the Host; the term is also employed to denote the catalogue or register of Catholic saints.

CANON, an ecclesiastical dignitary, so called as living under a rule, or as following the rule or canon of divine service. His office is of no great antiquity. According to Paschier, the name was not known before Charlemagne. This, however, is

not precisely true, for the term C. was applied in the 4th c. to cenobites living under a common rule; but the office of C. is supposed to have been first instituted by Chrodegand, or Chrodegang, Bishop of Metz, in 763. It is at least certain that he was the author of the oldest canonical rule, which was simply an adaptation of the monastic rule (commonly but erroneously attributed to St Augustine) to the priests and clerks' specially

*The word is sometimes said to have been borrowed

by the Spaniards from the native Indian name of such boats. But a similar name exists in the Aryan languages: Ger. kahn, a boat; Old Fr. cane, a ship, and canot, a boat. The root of these words is the same as that of cane (Lat. canna), a reed or hollow stem, and signifies hollowness, capacity; Gr. chaino, to gape or yawn. From the same root come cann, a drinkingbeing an augmentative from canna, a hollow stem or cup; cannon (Ital. cannone, properly a large tube, tube); canon (Gr.), a ruler or straight rod, most readily obtained from a joint of a reed; canal (Lat. canalis, a pipe or conduit).

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