solitary individuals are met with, they are almost always old males. Terrible conflicts often take place among the males, and it is not unusual to find the lower jaw deformed in consequence of having been dislocated or broken in them. See WHALE-FISHERY.

CACIQUE, or CAZI'QUE, the designation given to the chiefs of Indian tribes in works relating to the central and southern parts of America. The word was derived by the Spaniards from the language of the former inhabitants of St Domingo.

CACODE'MON. See DEMON.

CA'CODYLE, or KA'KODYLE, is an organic substance containing carbon, hydrogen, and arsenic (CHAs). It has recently been proposed to employ the oxide of C. (CH.ASO) as a deadly agent in war. This compound, otherwise known as Cadet's fuming liquor or alkarsine, has the remarkable property of taking fire spontaneously when exposed to the air, and evolving abundant fumes of arsenic. Thus, a shell filled with it would, on bursting, saturate a space of ground, or the rigging or deck of a man-of-war, with a liquid which would quickly take fire of its own accord, and besides causing destruction by burning, would likewise spread death by its fumes.

CACO'NGO, or MALLE'MBA, an independent state of South Guinea, Africa, extending along the South Atlantic Ocean, in lat. 5° S., and stretching south-east as far as the river Bell. Its limits interiorly are not well defined. The country is generally flat, and the soil fertile. The principal towns are Kinguele, and Cacongo and Mallemba on the coast, the last once a great mart for slaves.

CA'CTEÆ, or CACTA'CEE, a natural order of exogenous plants, consisting of succulent shrubs of very singular appearance. Linnæus included all the C. in the single genus Cactus, which is now divided into a number of genera; the name Cactus, however, still continuing in popular use, common to the whole order. Nearly 500 species are known, but the real number is probably much greater. The C. are, without exception, natives of America, and their extraordinary forms constitute a remarkable feature in the vegetation of its warmer regions. All of them have fleshy stems, either simple or branched, often very soft and juicy; but in many, at least when old, having an easily distinguished woody axis, composed of annual rings, and covered with a layer of inner bark, so that the thick fleshy part may be regarded only as a layer of bark. Most of them are leafless; the Pereskio alone have true leaves, which are fleshy; and the Opuntia have rudimentary leaves, which soon fall off; but, instead of leaves, most of the order have clusters of hairs or prickles, where buds are formed in their stems, and these are very numerous, even in the species which in ordinary circumstances most rarely develop branches. The multiplicity of curious forms exceeds imagination; in many species (Melocactidæ, or Melon Thistles), the stem swells out into a globe; in others (Torch Thistles), it rises up as a column with many angles; in others (Opuntia, Indian Figs, or Prickly Pears), it divides in leaf-like articulations; in some (Pereskice) it assumes a tree-like form, in which the thick stem bears a head of branches, and reaches a considerable height, sometimes even 30 or 40 feet. Those which have angular, ribbed, and channelled, or flat and two-edged stems, shew a tendency to the cylindrical

part of the year, and then rest; the very absence of leaves concurring with the absence of pores or stomata in their tough skin to enable them to resist the action of a dry atmosphere and powerful sunshine, and to occupy arid soils and bare rocks, on which they are very generally found, often covering large tracts. Some of them grow rapidly on old lavas, and disintegrate them by their penetrating roots, thus preparing a soil for other plants; and the Prickly Pear is often planted in Sicily by the mere insertion of a branch or joint of it in a fissure of lava. Many species occur as epiphytes (q. v.) on the trees of American forests. Some also grow on high mountains, a few even reaching almost to

The flowers of the C. are in general very shortlived; those of some night-flowering species, as of Cereus grandiflorus, well known in our hothouses, endure only for part of a single night. In the greater number, they are large and splendidly coloured, in some they are very fragrant. The order is regarded as botanically allied to Mesembryacea (q. v.) and to Grossulariaceae (q. v., Gooseberry, Currant, &c.).

The cultivation of the C. in green-houses and hothouses has been much in fashion for more than 20 years. The gardener must imitate the natural conditions of their growth, by giving water freely during a few months, and withholding it almost entirely during the rest of the year. Most of them are easily propagated by branches, taken off, and allowed to dry a little before being planted. The Melocactida, which do not readily produce branches, are made to do so by cutting off or burning out the central bud, that the means of propagating them may be obtained.

CA'DDICE, or CA'DDICE-FLY (Phryganea), a Linnæan genus of insects of the order Neuroptera, a family in subsequent entomological systems, and constituted by Mr Kirby into a distinct order, Trichoptera (Gr. hairy-winged). The caddice-flies certainly differ in important particulars from the other neuropterous insects, and exhibit points of resemblance to the Lepidoptera. They have no mandibles, and the maxilla and lower lip are membranous and united; the head is small, with prominent eyes, and two additional small simple eyes situated on the forehead; the antennæ are long and bristle-like, composed of very numerous indistinct joints. Both wings and body are generally very hairy, and the wings, when at rest, are raised, and meet above the back like those of butterflies, from which, however, they differ very much in form, being much more elongate: the legs are long. Caddice-flies are extremely active, particularly in the evening and at night, when the

cylindrical form, the head and first three segments hard, the remainder-the abdominal segmentssoft. To the thoracic segments are attached the feet, six in number, as in the perfect insect. The larva lives always in water, feeding on aquatic vegetables. It spins by its mouth silken threads, by means of which, together with a viscid substance, it attaches together and often in a very symmetrical manner, and with interesting peculiarities which differ in the different species-small hard substances, such as small stones, bits of stick, or small shells, even although they happen to contain living inmates, and thus constructs a case for itself, in which its soft body is protected, and from which only the head and hard thoracic segments are voluntarily protruded. When it changes into the pupa state, in which it differs little from the perfect insect, except in the imperfectly developed wings, it fixes its case to some solid substance beneath the water, and closes the two extremities with a kind of grating, which admits the free passage of water, necessary for respiration. Before assuming the perfect form, the pupa of the larger species breaks out of its case by means of a pair of hooks on the forepart of the head, and swims actively by means of the hind legs, or crawls by the other two pair. Many of the smaller species bring their pupa case to the surface of the water, and there take wing from it as from a boat. The species of caddice-fly are very numerous, and they are said to be more so in the north than in the south of Europe. About 200 British species have been described. The angler looks for cad-bait about the edges of streams and under stones, or on the stalks of water-cresses, and other aquatic plants. As a bait for angling, the caddice is almost as deadly as the May-fly, and more so, in clear running streams, than the ordinary worm; the usual-sized bait-hook is used, upon which two of the baits are fixed, the angler proceeding exactly as in ordinary worm-fishing.

Various shapes of Caddice Cases, and perfect Insect: a, case of bark; b, case of sand; o, case of sand, magnified; d, case of grass stems; e, case of grass; f, orifice of case, shewing the silk grating, magnified; g, pupa; h, stone, or caddice-fly.

smaller species often fly in great numbers above streams and ponds. These insects are most interesting, however, on account of their larvæ, of which the larger kinds are the well-known Caddice-worms, or Cad-bait of anglers. They are of a long, almost

CADE, JACK, a historical character, leader of an insurrection which broke out in Kent, June 1450. Little is known of his personal history, further, than that he was an Irishman, and an illegitimate relation of the Duke of York, and hence called himself Mortimer. With 15,000 or 20,000 armed men of Kent, C. marched on London, and encamped at Blackheath, whence he kept up a correspondence with the citizens, many of whom were favourable to his enterprise. The court sent to inquire why the good men of Kent had left their homes; C., in a paper entitled 'The Complaint of the Commons of Kent,' replied, that the people were robbed of their goods for the king's use; that mean and corrupt persons, who plundered and oppressed the commons, filled the high offices at court; that it was 'noised that the king's lands in France had been aliened;' that misgovernment had banished justice and prosperity from the land; and that the men of Kent were especially ill-treated and overtaxed, and that the free election of knights of their shire had been hindered. In another paper, called 'The Requests by the Captain of the Great Assembly in Kent,' C. demanded that the king should resume the grants of the crown, which he complained the creatures about the royal person fattened on, the king thus being compelled to live on taxation; that the false progeny of the Duke of Suffolk should be dismissed; and that the Duke of York and others should be restored to favour, and a number of persons punished. The court sent its answer in the form of an army, before which C. retreated to Sevenoaks, where he awaited the attack of a detachment, which he defeated. The royal army now objected to fight against their countrymen; the court made some concessions, and C. entered London on the 3d July.

frequent reasons for matriculating the arms of the younger branches of families of distinction in the Lord Lyon's Register, is that they may be properly distinguished from those borne by the head of the house.

CADENZA, in Music, an ornamental succession of notes introduced at pleasure by the performer at the finishing of a phrase.

CA'DER I'DRIS (Chair of Idris, a reputed giant), a picturesque mountain in Merionethshire, Wales, 5 miles south-south-west of Dolgelly. It consists of an immense ridge of broken precipices, 10 miles long, and 1 to 3 miles broad; the highest peak reaching an elevation of 2914 feet. It is composed of basalt, porphyry, and other trap rocks, with beds of slag and pumice. The view from the summit, which is very extensive, includes the Wrekin in Shropshire, and St George's Channel almost to the Irish coast. CADE'T, MILITARY (Fr. cadet, younger, junior in service-allied in derivation and meaning to cadency (q. v.) in heraldry), is a term applied in a general sense to a junior member of a noble family as distinguished from the eldest; and in France, any officer junior to another is a C. in respect to him. In a strict military sense, however, a C. is a

youth studying for the public service.

In England, military cadetship has presented two aspects, according as it related to the East India Company's or to the royal service. When the Company possessed political and military authority in India, there were about 5000 English officers in their pay. Those who commanded the Company's own regiments had been professionally educated by the Company. A youth, nominated by the directors, was examined as to his proficiency in an ordinary English education, and admitted between the ages of 14 and 18 to Addiscombe School or College, near Croydon. If a probation of six months resulted satisfactorily, he entered upon a two years' course of study. If he passed through this ordeal well, he became a C. in the Company's service, receiving pay or salary, and being available for service in India, as opportunity might offer. The system of Indian cadetship underwent various modifications, by the introduction of competition in the appointments, and by the transference of the Company's powers to the Crown; and the proposed (1860) amalgamation of the Indian and royal armies, will (if acted upon) nullify the distinctive characters of East India cadets.

The second aspect of military cadetship in England, adverted to above, is that of the Royal or Queen's cadets. The arrangements in operation until recently will be found noticed under SANDHURST COLLEGE; and the present arrangements under CADETS' COLLEGE and STAFF COLLEGE.

CADET, NAVAL, is the lowest grade of officer in the royal navy. The cadets enter the royal service at 12 to 14 years of age. Every captain, on being appointed to a ship in commission, is allowed to nominate one C.; every flag-officer (admiral, &c.), two, on receiving his flag; but all the rest are nominated by the First Lord of the Admiralty, subject to regulations recently made concerning competitive examinations. The candidates are examined at the Royal Naval College at Portsmouth; if they pass, they are sent for three months to a training ship at Portsmouth or Plymouth, to learn the elements of rigging and seamanship. If they do not progress sufficiently in the training ship, they are rejected; but if the report is favourable, they become cadets, and are put into sea-going ships. While on board, the C. is expected to watch and learn as much as possible of what is going on-saluting officers, tying knots,

splicing ropes, arranging rigging, learning technical terms, going aloft, keeping the log, keeping watch, &c. If the C. serves satisfactorily for 3 months in a training ship, and 15 months in a sea-going ship, he becomes eligible for the next higher rank in the navy-that of midshipman. The cadets mess with the midshipmen on shipboard. There are 375 cadets on the navy estimates for 1860-1861.

ences.

CADETS' COLLEGE was established in 1858 by a remodelling of the Junior Department of the Royal Military College at Sandhurst. Its objects are, to give a sound military education to youths intended for the army, and to facilitate the obtaining of commissions when the education is finished. The age of admission is between 16 and 19. The friends of a youth, able to pay the sums of money presently to be named, apply to the commander-inchief for permission to place the youth on the list of candidates; this permission is usually granted on production of satisfactory certificates and referThe youth may go up for examination on any half-year. The list of subjects includes English history, geography, natural sciences, experimental composition, continental languages, mathematics, sciences, and drawing. After the examination, the candidates are reported to the commander-in-chief in their order of merit. Those who have the most marks are admitted as cadets as soon as vacancies occur in the college. When entered, they study for two years on a great variety of subjects connected with military science and practice. The friends supply clothing, books, and instruments. The annual payment for education, board, and lodging varies from £100 per annum down to £20; the highest sum being demanded for 'the sons of private gentlemen,' while the lowest is deemed sufficient for the sons of officers of the army or navy who have died in the service, and whose families are proved to be left in pecuniary distress.' Twenty of the youths are Queen's cadets,' sons of officers who have fallen in action, or have died from the effects of active service, and have left their families in reduced circumstances.' admitted and educated gratuitously. When the course is completed, the cadets are eligible to the reception of commissions in the cavalry and infantry, a certain number of which are placed at the disposal of the college.

་

These 20 cadets are

At the most recent competitive examination, in June 1860, the examiners announced that 40 cadets The commander-in-chief had, however, only 20 were fitting recipients of commissions in the army. commissions for bestowal, owing to the difficulties connected with the system of army purchase.

CADET'S FUMING LIQUOR. See CACODYLE. CA'DI, an Arabic word signifying a judge or person learned in the law, the title of an inferior judge amongst the Mohammedan nations, who, like the Mollah (q. v.), or superior judge, must be chosen from the higher ranks of the priesthood, as all law is

founded

upon

the Koran.

CA'DIZ (ancient Gades), an important commercial city of Spain, capital of the modern province of the same name, which forms a part of the great division of Andalusia; is situated at the extremity of the long narrow isthmus of the Isle of Leon, in lat. 36° 32′ N., and long. 6° 17′ W. The Atlantic Ocean washes its western and part of its southern side, and on the north and north-east it is enclosed by the Bay of Cadiz, a deep inlet of the Atlantic, forming an outer and an inner bay. Connected by only a narrow strip of ground (in some places not above 200 yards across) with the mainland, C. is admirably situated for defence; but though it has several sea and land fortifications, these are by no means considered

impregnable. The town, which is surrounded by walls, forms nearly a square, each side being about a mile and a half in length. The houses being built of white stone, the city presents a remarkably bright and clean appearance from the sea. The streets are well paved and lighted, regular, but narrow, and there are some pleasant public walks, the most frequented of which is the Alameda. It has few public buildings of note; its two cathedrals are, on the whole, but poor specimens of ecclesiastical architecture, and its pictures, with the exception of one or two excellent pieces by Murillo, are of little value. As a commercial city, C. has greatly declined since the emancipation of the Spanish colonies in South America; but it is still, so far as the amount of tonnage of vessels entering and leaving, and the value of exports are concerned, the chief of Spanish ports, though with regard to the value of imports it stands below Barcelona and Santander. Ships with tonnage to the amount of 231,253 tons, and 151,992 tons, respectively, entered and cleared out of the port of C. in 1856; the value of imports and of exports in the same year being 138,343,590 reals (£1,383,435) and 187,001,584 reals (£1,870,015); in the latter case, little more than a third of what it was in 1849. The exports consist of wine, olive-oil, fruits, salt, and metals; and the manufactures of glass, coarse woollen cloth, soap, hats, leather, &c. Pop. (1857) 71,914.

C. is one of the most ancient towns in Europe, having been built by the Phoenicians, under the name of Gaddir, 347 years before the foundation of Rome, or about 1100 B. C. It afterwards passed into the hands of the Carthaginians, from whom it was captured by the Romans, who named it Gades, and under them it soon became a city of vast wealth and importance. Occupied afterwards by the Goths and Moors, it was taken by the Spaniards in 1262. In 1587, Drake destroyed the Spanish fleet in the bay; nine years later, it was pillaged and burned by Lord Essex; and in 1625 and 1702, it was unsuccessfully attacked by other English forces After the revolution (1808), C. became the headquarters of the insurrectionary junta, by whose orders it was separated from the mainland. The French, in February 1810, commenced a blockade, which they vigorously persevered in, capturing several of the forts, until August 25, 1812, when the victories of the Duke of Wellington forced them to abandon it. The city was besieged and taken by the French in 1823, and held by them

until 1828.

CA'DMIA is the term applied to the crust formed in zinc furnaces, and which contains from 10 to 20 per cent. of cadmium.

CA'DMIUM is a metal which occurs in zinc ores, and, being more volatile than zinc, rises in vapour, and distils over with the first portions of the metal. See ZINC. C. is represented by the symbol Cd, has the atomic weight or equivalent 55.74, and the specific gravity 86. It is a white metal, somewhat resembling tin; is malleable and ductile; fuses at 442° F., and rises in vapour a little above 600°. It is rarely prepared pure, and is not employed in the arts as a metal, though one or more of its salts have been serviceable in medicine. The sulphide of C., CdS, occurs naturally as the mineral Greenockite, and when prepared artificially, is of a bright yellow colour. It is known as CADMIUM YELLOW, and is of great value to the artist. A great variety of tints are produced by mixing it with white-lead. Much of what is sold as Naples Yellow (q. v.) is thus prepared; but the genuine Naples Yellow has a greenish tint, which renders it easily distinguishable from the imitation. Cadmium

Yellow, however, has many valuable qualities, which are causing it rapidly to supersede Naples Yellow.

CA'DMUS (according to Apollodorus and others) was the son of Agenor and Telephassa, and the brother of Europa. When the latter was carried off by Zeus, he and his brothers, as also their mother, were sent in quest of her, with injunctions from Agenor not to return without her. Their search was vain, and the oracle at Delphi told C. to relinquish it, and to follow a cow of a certain kind which he should meet, and build a city where it should lie down. He found the cow in Phocis, followed her to Boeotia, and built there the city of Thebes, about 1550 B.C. The myth of C., however, like other early Greek myths, abounds in contradic tions, and it is wholly impossible to disentangle the historical facts from the meshes of fable in which they are imprisoned. To him is ascribed the introduction into Greece of an alphabet of 16 letters, derived from Egypt or Phoenicia, and the discovery of brass, or introduction of its use.

CADOUDAL, GEORGE, a distinguished leader in the Chouan or Royalist war in Brittany, was born near Auray, in Lower Brittany, where his father was a miller, in 1771. He was among the first to take up arms against the Republic, and soon acquired great influence over the peasants. Captured in 1794, he was sent as a prisoner to Brest, from which he soon made his escape, imprisonment having only increased his loyal ardour. Annoyed at the dissensions between the Vendean generals and the emigrant officers, and the disasters consequent thereon, C. organised an army in which no noble was permitted to command, and which Hoche, with all his great military talents, was unable to subdue or disperse. In 1799, C. was the soul of the conspiracy to overthrow the First Consul, and place a Bourbon on the throne; but the events of the 18th_Brumaire disarranged the plans of the conspirators. Bonaparte recognised C.'s energy and force of character, and offered to make him a lieutenant-general in his army, which offer C. refused, as well as another of a pension of a hundred thousand francs, if he would only consent to remain quiet. Bonaparte attempted to arrest him, but he fled to England, where, in 1802, he conspired with Pichegru for the overthrow of the First Consul. With this design he went to Paris, but was arrested, condemned, and executed June 25, 1804. C. was a man of stern honesty and indomitable resolution. His mind was cast in the true mould; in my hands he would have done great things,' was Napoleon's estimate of him.

Hermes, as he was called by the Greeks, which was CADU'CEUS, the winged staff of Mercury, or supposed to give the god power to fly. The C. in the actual world was the staff or mace carried by heralds and ambassadors, from which circumstance, no doubt, it came to form one of the attributes of the messenger of the gods. Originally, it was simply an olive-branch, the stems of which were afterwards formed into snakes, in accordance with several poetical tales invented by the mythologists. One of these was to the effect that Mercury, having found two snakes fighting, divided them with his rod, and that thus they came to be used as an emblem of peace. Many miraculous virtues were ascribed to the caduceus. On Caduceus. the coinage of antiquity, the C. is often given to Mars, who holds it in the left hand, a spear being in his right, to shew how peace and war alternate. It is also seen in the hands of