two Dindorfs, Schopen, Meinecke, and Lachmann, began a new Corpus Scriptorum Historia Byzantina, of which many volumes have already appeared.

BYZANTINES, in Numismatics, is the term applied to coins of the Byzantine empire. Byzantine coins are of gold, silver, and bronze; bear impressions distinct from those of the earlier Roman coins; and were copied in several countries where the Byzantine standard was adopted. The commercial relations of the Eastern empire served to distribute its coinage over almost all the then known world. It was current in India, as well as in the north of Europe. Recently, an increased attention has been paid to the study of Byzantine coins as aids to history.-Sauley, Essai de Classification de Suites Monétaires Byzantines (Metz,

1836).

BYZANTIUM, a city which stood on the Thracian Bosporus, was first founded by emigrants from Megara in 667 B. C., and rapidly rose to importance as a seat of commerce. Its position was at once secure and enchanting; it commanded the shores of Europe and Asia, had magnificent facilities for trade, and was also encircled with rich, picturesque, and varied scenery. After a time of subjugation under Darius Hystaspes, B. was liberated from the Persian yoke by Pausanias. Along with other Grecian seaports, B. revolted from Athens in 440 B. C., but was captured by Alcibiades (408). Lysander recovered it for the Lacedæ

monians in 405. Shortly afterwards, it renewed its alliance with Athens, and in 390, Thrasybulus altered its form of government from an oligarchy into a democracy. When Athens again acquired 356, leagued itself with Chios, Rhodes, and King a dangerous importance as a naval power, B., in Mausolus II. of Caria, and crippled the trade of the former city; with which, however, it again formed an alliance, through the influence of Demosthenes, -340 B. C., vainly besieged Byzantium. in opposition to Philip of Macedon, who, in 341 Alexander the Great, B. retained a certain degree Under of independence. For some time, B. was tributary to the Gauls, who settled in Thrace, after the death of Brennus (280 B. C.). After the second Punic war, when the Romans began to interfere in the affairs of Grecian and Asiatic cities, B. attached itself to Rome, and, retaining almost entire its former liberties, maintained also its commercial importance. In the civil war between Septimius Severus and Pescennius Niger, B. sided with the latter. It was therefore besieged by Severus, and, after a brave defence of three years' duration, was captured in 196 A. D., and reduced to ruin. Severus, repenting of the desolation which he had made, rebuilt a part of the city under the name of Augusta Antonina, and ornamented it with baths, porticos, &c. Caracalla restored to the inhabitants their ancient privileges; and, in 330 A. D., under the name of New Rome or Constantinople, it was made the metropolis of the Roman empire. See CONSTANTINOPLE.

THE third letter in all the alphabets derived from the Roman. It corresponds in place to the Greek gamma (r), and had originally the same sound-viz., that of g in gun; as is expressly recorded, and as is proved by very old inscriptions, on which we read leciones, lece, for what were afterwards written legiones, lege. This medial or flat guttural sound of c was at an early period of Roman history lost in the sharp guttural or k-sound (see ALPHABET), and this continued to be the pronunciation of the letter c in Latin down at least to the 8th c. of the Christian era, not only in such words as comes, clamo, but also before the vowels e and i. Such Latin words as Cicero, fecit, are uniformly represented in Greek by Kikero, phekit; and in the times of the Empire, the Germans borrowed Kaiser, keller, from Cæsar, cellarium.

It seems difficult, at first sight, to account for the same letter having sounds so different as those heard in call and in civil. The beginning of the transition is to be found in the effect produced upon certain consonants by their standing before followed by a vowel. Thus, in nation, ti has the effect of sh; and out of diurnal has sprung journal. In such combinations, i is originally a semivowel having the force of y, and it is easy to see that tyon, dyur, pronounced in one syllable, cannot but slide into the sibilant or hissing sounds of shon, jur. A precisely similar effect is produced on the k-sound before ia, iu, io; in Lucius, Porcia, or rather Lukyus, Porkya, ky tends to slide into a hissing sound similar to that of ty and dy. This tendency shewed itself early in the Latin tongue; and in the vulgar Latin of later ages, and in the Romanic tongues that sprang out of it, it fully developed itself, so that the Italian came to pronounce Lucia as if written Lutshia. Combinations like ceo, cea are little different from cro and cia, and would naturally follow the same course; and the s sound being once associated with the letter c in these positions, was gradually extended to it in cases where the e or i was not followed by a vowel.

The Anglo-Saxon alphabet resembled the Roman, from which it sprang, in having no k, and in always using c with the sound of k; king and keen were spelled cyning and cene. It was also without q, for which cw was used-quick being spelled cwic. By a process analogous to that described above, such Anglo-Saxon words as ceorl, ceosan (pro. kyorl, kyosan), became transformed into the English churl, choose. And this suggests a natural explanation of the multitude of cases where the c of the Latin has been transformed into ch in French, and has passed in this form into English-e. g., Lat. caput, Fr. chef, Eng. chief; Lat. caminus, Eng. chimney; Lat. carmen, Eng. charm. For as the Anglo-Saxons turned the karl or korl of the other Gothic nations into kyorl, so doubtless the Romanised Gauls corrupted the pronunciation of the Latin camera, for example, into kyamera (compare

Eng. cart, pro. by some kyart), which would then readily slide into chambre.

In the other Germanic alphabets, which were derived partly from the Roman and partly from the Greek, the Greek kappa or k is used almost to the exclusion of c, which, in German, Swedish, &c., appears only in words borrowed from the Romanie languages. See letter K.

8

In modern English, c is pronounced like before the vowels a, o, u, and like s before e, i, and y; and where the sharp guttural sound has to be represented before e, i, and y, the Germanic k has superseded the Anglo-Saxon c, as in king, keen. In so far as mere sound is concerned, c is a superfluous letter in English; in every case its power could be represented either by k or by 8. In the corresponding words of the several Aryan languages, we find various substitutions for c, thus: Lat. calamus, Eng. halm (stalk), Rus. soloma; Lat. cord-, Eng. heart, Rus. serdtse; Lat. collum, Ger. hals (neck); Lat. acer (sharp), Fr. aigre, Eng. eager; Lat. duc- (lead or draw), Ger. zog, Eng. tug; Gr. pepo, Lat. coquo, Eng. cook; Lat. dictus, Ital. ditto. C sometimes disappears before l and r; thus: Gr. kleo (to sound one's fame, allied to kaleo, to call or shout), Lat. laudo, to praise, Ger. laut, voice, Eng. loud, Old Ger. hlud, fame (hence Hludwig or Clodowig, Clovis, Louis).

C, in Music, is the name of one of the notes of the gamut. The scale of C major has neither flats nor sharps, and therefore is called the natural scale. The different octaves of the gamut, beginning with C, are called by the Germans the great, small, one-stroked, two-stroked, &c., beginning with D:

==

; thus, C, c, c, c, c.

C is also the sound on which the system of music is founded, and from which the mathematical proportions of intervals are taken; that is, a string of a given length sounding C, when divided into the intervals of the different fundamental chords. certain proportions, is made to produce harmonically

C MAJOR, the first of the twelve major keys in modern music; being the natural scale, it has no signature.

C MINOR, the tonic minor of C major, has three flats for its signature-viz., B flat, E flat, and A flat.

CAABA. See KAABA.

CAA'ING WHALE (Globicephalus deductor), an interesting cetaceous animal, which has been very generally included by naturalists in the genus Dephinus with dolphins (q. v.) and porpoises (q. v.), being named by some Delphinus melas (Gr. black), by others D. globiceps, from the round form of its head, but which has recently been separated from the true dolphins, either as a species of porpoise (Phocœna), or as the type of a distinct genus, Globicephalus, principally characterised by the rounded muzzle, and the convex and rounded top of the head. The general form of the animal is not unlike that of the

common porpoise, but it is much larger, being from 16 to 24 feet in length. The body is thick, its circumference at the origin of the dorsal fin, where it is greatest, being rather more than 10 feet, tapering towards the tail, which is deeply forked. The

Caaing Whale.

pectoral fins are remarkably long and narrow, fully 5 feet in length, differing very much in this respect from those of every other known cetaceous animal. The whole number of vertebræ is 55. The colour is black, with a white streak from the throat to the vent; and the skin is beautifully smooth, shining like oiled silk.

The C. W. feeds on cod, ling, and other large fishes, but also to a great extent on cephalopodous mollusca, the cuttle-fish, indeed, seeming to be its principal food. It is the most gregarious of all the Cetacea, great shoals or herds being usually seen together in the northern seas which it inhabits. These herds exhibit the same propensity with flocks of sheep, when pressed by any danger, to follow their leaders, so that when they are hemmed in by boats, if one break through to the open sea, all escape; but if one is driven ashore, the rest rush forward with such blind impetuosity as to strand themselves upon the beach, where they become an easy prey and rich prize to their pursuers. The appearance of a herd of caaing whales in a northern bay produces a scene of great excitement, and every boat is in requisition. From 50 to 100 whales are often captured, and it is recorded that 1110 were killed, in the winter of 1809-1810, at Hvalfiord, in Iceland. The word caaing is not the Scottish form of calling, as has been supposed, but is a totally different Scotch word, which signifies driving. Č. W. appears to be originally an Orkney or Zetland name. The same animal is known to sailors as the Black Whale, the Howling Whale, the Social Whale, and the Pilot-fish.-Another species of the same genus, G. Rissoanus, 9 or 10 feet long, the male of a bluish-white colour, the female brown, both sexes marked with irregular white lines and brown spots, is found in the

Mediterranean.

CABAGA'N, a thriving town, situated at the northern extremity of the island of Luzon, one of the Philippines, with a population of about 11,000.

CABAL, a term employed to denote a small, intriguing, factious party in the state, and also a union of several such, which, for political or personal ends, agree to modify or sacrifice their principles. The word was used to describe an English ministry in the reign of Charles II., the initials of whose names composed CABAL-viz., Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale. This was not the origin of the word, however, as

some have supposed; but merely the ingenious application of a word previously in use, and which appears to have been derived from the French cabale, possessing a similar signification.

CABANIS, PIERRE JEAN GEORGES, a French physician, philosophical writer, and partisan of Mirabeau in the Revolution, was born at Cosnac, in the department of the Charente-Inférieure, 1757. When he had completed his studies in Paris (1773), he went to Warsaw, in the capacity of secretary to a Polish magnate. On his return to Paris, he was for some time engaged in literary pursuits, from which he turned his attention to an earnest study of medicine. At the outbreak of the Revolution, he attached himself to the liberal side, but detested the cruelties which followed. For Mirabeau, whose opinions he received, he wrote a work on national education, which was published after the death of that great orator (1791). C. was one of the Council of Five Hundred, afterwards member of the senate, and administrator of the hospitals of Paris. He died May 5, 1808. His chief work, Rapports du Physique et du Moral de l'Homme, completed in 1802, gained its author a considerable reputation as a writer and philosopher. The work displays no mean power of observation and analysis, but is vitiated by a sensationalism so absolute, that it seems at first sight as if the author were burlesquing with grave irony the doctrines of his brother-materialists. He denies that the soul is an entity; it is only a faculty; and declares the brain to be merely a particular organ specially fitted to produce thought, as the stomach and the intestines perform the function of digestion. C. traces this grotesque analogy through all its niceties, and at last triumphantly concludes, that the brain digests impressions and organically secretes thought!'

CABATUAN, a city of the province of Iloilo, on the island of Panay, one of the Philippines. It is situated on the banks of the river Tiguin, which so abounds with crocodiles that fishing is unsafe. Navigation is very uncertain, the river being sometimes nearly dry, while at others it overflows its banks, and deluges the surrounding country. The city was founded in 1732, and possesses a population of 23,000, who are chiefly engaged in the production of rice, and of cocoa-nut oil.

CABAZERA, capital of the province of Cagayan, island of Luzon, Philippines. Pop. 15,000. Tobacco is grown very extensively in the province, and its manufacture affords employment to large numbers of people.

CA'BBAGE (Brassica oleracea; see BRASSICA),

a plant in most general cultivation for culinary also to a considerable extent for feeding cattle. It purposes in Europe and other countries, cultivated is a native of the rocky shores of Britain and other parts of Europe, more plentiful on the shores of the Mediterranean than in more northern latitudes, and in its wild state is generally from a foot to two feet high. This plant has been cultivated in Europe from time immemorial; it has likewise been cultivated from an early period in gardens and about villages in India. Few plants shew so great a tendency to vary in their form through cultivation; and among the varieties of this one species are reckoned several of our most esteemed culinary vegetables, such as Kale (q. v.) or Greens, Borecole, Colewort (q. v.), Savoy (q. v.), Kohl Rabi (q. v.), Cauliflower (q. v.), and Broccoli (q. v.)-plants which differ much in their appearance and in the particular qualities for which they are valuable, both from each other and from the original wild plant.

The wild C. has smooth sea-green leaves, waved

and variously indented; the bolling of the leaves, or their forming close heads at a certain stage of the growth of the plant, so that the inner leaves are blanched, is peculiar to those cultivated varieties which commonly receive the name of cabbage.

The ordinary varieties of C. are often called by the general name of White C., to distinguish them from the Red C., which is of a deep brownish-red or purplish colour, and is chiefly used for pickling, for which purpose it is much esteemed. The Tree C., or Cow C., is a variety cultivated for cattle, especially in the Channel Islands and the north of France, of which the leaves do not close together into compact heads, but which is remarkable for its great height-reaching, when it is in flower, ten feet on rich soils and for its branching stem. The stems of this kind are sometimes used as stakes for pease, and even as cross-spars for thatched roofs. The Portugal or Tranxuda C., also known as Couve Tronchuda, is a variety remarkable for its delicacy, and for the large midribs of its leaves, which are often used like sea-kale. It is an article of luxury like cauliflower, and requires a somewhat similar cultivation.-C.-seed is sown either in spring or autumn, and the seedlings transplanted in rows at distances of two feet or upwards, according to the size of the variety. They are often planted closer, and the alternate plants cut young for open greens, for which the sprouts that arise from the stem of some varieties after the head has been cut off are also used. Cabbages require a rich, well-manured soil, and the earth about the roots ought to be often stirred. By sowing and planting at different dates and of different varieties, a succession is secured in the garden; and when winter approaches, part of the principal crop may be taken up and laid in a sloping position, so that only the heads are above the earth, in which way they are generally preserved without injury. In some places, cabbages are completely buried in the earth, the plants not being allowed to touch each other; and this method succeeds well in peaty or sandy soils.

The C., considered as food, contains more than 90 per cent. of water, and therefore cannot be very nutritious: 100 parts of the ordinary C. consist of

The digestibility of C. varies according as it is partaken of raw or boiled: thus, raw C. alone is digested in 24 hours; raw C. with vinegar, in 2 hours; and boiled C. takes 4 hours. Immense quantities of cabbages are used in Germany as Sauer Kraut (q. v.).

CABBAGE BARK. See ANDIRA.

CA'BBAGE BUTTERFLY, a name common to several species of butterfly, the larvae of which devour the leaves of cruciferous plants, especially of the cabbage tribe, and are popularly known as cabbage-worms or kale-worms. The LARGE C. B., or Large White Garden Butterfly (Pontia Brassica, or Pieris Brassica), is one of the most common of British butterflies. It is white; the wings tipped and spotted with black. The wings, when expanded, measure from 2 to 3 inches across. The antennæ terminate in an ovoid club. The female lays her eggs, which are conical and bright yellow, in clusters of 20 or 30, on the leaves of the plants which are the destined food of the caterpillars. The caterpillars, when fully grown, are about 1 inch or 1 inch long, and are excessively voracious, eating twice their own weight of cabbage-leaf in 24 hours. When full grown, they suspend themselves

476

by their tails, often under ledges of garden-walls, or similar projections, and are metamorphosed into shining pale-green chrysalids, spotted with black, from which the perfect insect emerges, either in the same season or after the lapse of a winter-no longer to devour cabbage-leaves, but to subsist delicately upon honey, which it sucks from flowers. See INSECTS.-The SMALL C. B., or Small Garden White Butterfly, sometimes called the TURNIP BUTTERFLY (Pontia or Pieris Rapa), very much resembles the Large C. B., but the expanse of the wings is only about 2 inches. The eggs are laid singly on the under side of the leaves of cabbages, turnips, &c., and the caterpillars, which are of a velvety appearance, pale green, with a yellow line along the back, and a yellow dotted line on each side, sometimes appear in great numbers, and prove very destructive. They bore into the hearts of cabbages, instead of merely stripping the leaves, like those of the last species, and thus are a greater pest, even when comparatively few. The chrysalis is of a pale reddish-brown colour, freckled with black.-A third species, also common in Britain, the GREEN-VEINED WHITE BUTTERFLY (Pontia or Pieris Napi), very nearly resembles the small cabbage butterfly. The excessive multiplication of these insects is generally prevented by small birds, which devour them and their caterpillars, and by insects of the Ichneumon (q.v.) tribe, which lay their eggs in the caterpillars, that their own larva may feed on them.

CABBAGE FLY (Anthomyia Brassica), a fly of the same family with the house-fly, flesh-fly, &c., and of which the larvæ or maggots often do great injury to the roots of cabbages, and sometimes to those of turnips. It is of the same genus with the fly generally known as the Turnip Fly (q. v.), and also with the Potato Fly (q. v.), Beet Fly (q. v.), &c. It is about one-fourth of an inch in length, and half an inch in expanse of wings; of an ash-gray colour; the male having a silvery gray face, and a long black streak on the forehead; the female, a silvery white face, without any black streak; the abdomen of the male is linear, that of the female terminates conically; the eyes of the male nearly meet on the crown, those of the female are distant, with a broad black stripe between them. The larva is very similar to that of the flesh-fly-yellowish white, tapering to the head, which has two black hooks. The pupa is rust-coloured and horny.

CABBAGE MOTH (Mamestra or Noctua Brassica), a species of moth, the caterpillar of which feeds on cabbage and turnip leaves, and is sometimes very destructive. The caterpillar is greenishblack, and changes to a brown pupa in autumn. The perfect insect is of a rich mottled-brown colour, the upper wings clouded and waved with darker brown, and having pale and white spots, a yellowish line near the fringe, the fringe dotted with black and ochre, the under wings brownish and white.

CABBAGE PALM, or CABBAGE TREE, & name given in different countries to different species of Palm, the great terminal bud of which-the Palm Cabbage-is eaten like cabbage. The C. P. of the West Indies is Areca oleracea. The Southern States of America have also their C. P. or Cabbage Tree, otherwise called the Palmetto (Chamærops Palmetto). See ARECA, EUTERPE, PALM, and PALMETTO.

CA'BBALA (from Heb. kibbel, to receive), the received doctrine, by which is not to be understood the popularly accepted doctrine, but that inner or mystical interpretation of the Law which the Cabbalists allege that Moses received from God in the mount, and subsequently taught to Joshua, who in his turn communicated it to the seventy elders, and