peculiar feature on the shores and in the bays of the upper part of the Firth of Forth. But when a similar method was more recently introduced in an extensive moss in the low lands of Renfrewshire, the Clyde trustees interposed to prevent it, in the interests of the navigation of the river. A portion of the peat, taken from the upper surface, is not unfrequently burned in heaps upon the spot, the ashes becoming a manure, and assisting in the forma

tion of a soil.

Of course, the first essential in the reclaiming of bogs is drainage. The method of effecting this must be varied according to circumstances; but very frequently, after a general outlet with sufficient fall has been secured, wide open drains are cut, by which the bog is divided into strips, which again are traversed and subdivided by smaller drains. When these drains begin to serve their purpose, the surface of the bog sinks, and their depth is reduced; they are then often deepened, and at last a permanent system of covered drains emptying themselves into open ditches is thus formed, and fits the land for all the purposes of agriculture. It is, however, often ploughed before this state of things is attained, the plough-horses being shod with the pattens already mentioned, and socks and coulters of unusual sharpness being employed for the cutting of the bog. Various implements have also been devised for cutting the moss, to facilitate cultivation. Lime, calcareous sand, clay, and other manures are applied, according to circumstances, to promote the conversion of the peat into useful soil. Sometimes the first crop taken from the ploughed bog is a crop of oats; sometimes it is found preferable to begin with rape, turnip, or the like. În some places in the North of Ireland, fiorin grass (see BENT GRASS) has been sown on bogs in process of being reclaimed, and enormous crops have been obtained.-See WASTE

LANDS.

BO'GAN, or NEW-YEAR RIVER, the Allan Water of Oxley, an interior stream of East Australia, joins the Darling, after a generally north-west course of more than 300 miles, about lat. 30° S., and long. 146 E. Its source is in the Harvey Range, about lat. 33° S., and long. 148° 30′ E.

BOG BUTTER, a very peculiar mineral substance, which is found in some of the bogs of Ireland. It is evidently of vegetable origin, and has been formed by the decomposition of the peat amidst which it is found. In composition and qualities it exhibits a general agreement with bitumen, asphalt, amber, and the other mineral resins; all of which are not improbably supposed to resemble it also in their origin, although perhaps it is the most recent of them all. It contains about 74 per cent. of carbon; its remaining constituents being oxygen and hydrogen in nearly equal proportions. In colour and consist ency, it much resembles butter, and at 124° F. it becomes liquid. It is not soluble in water, but is readily dissolved by alcohol.

BOGDANOVITCH, HIPPOLYTUS THEODOROVITCH, a distinguished Russian poet of the 18th c., was born at Perevolotchna, Little Russia, in December 1743. His fame rests entirely upon his poem Dushenka, published in 1775. The story of Psyche forms the groundwork of the poem, which is characterised by a refined and graceful style, and vivacious playfulness of language. Its publication made him at once famous, as well as obtained for him the high favour of the court; but there can be no doubt that the popularity of the work was as much owing to the adventitious circumstances in which it was produced-nothing of the kind having been previously attempted in Russia-as to its intrinsic

merits. B., though he wrote much afterwards, never equalled his first performance. He died in January 1803.

BO'GEN, a town of Bavaria, in the circle of Lower Bavaria, situated on the left bank of the Danube, about six miles east of Straubing. It has extensive breweries, but is chiefly celebrated for its chapel, still a place of pilgrimage, built on a neighbouring height. Here, according to tradition, a hollow stone image of the Virgin floated up by the river, remained stationary; and its miraculous arrival had the effect of converting a notorious robber-chief, the ruins of whose castle now enclose the church. Innumerable pilgrims flocked to the image, including, at various times, three German emperors, and the monks grew very wealthy on their offerings. Pop. 1200.

BOGERMANN, JOHANN, who occupies a place in history as president of the far-famed synod of Dort, was born in 1576, at the village of Oplewert, in Friesland. He took a violent part in the religious controversies which inflamed, with unwonted fire, the Dutch mind at the beginning of the 17th century. His hatred of Arminianism extended itself (as theological hatred generally does) to the persons who upheld it, and his zeal was on various occasions had the misfortune to differ in opinion from him. gratified by securing the punishment of those who He translated and recommended Beza's book on the

Capital Punishment of Heretics; and about the year 1614, ventured to assail the great Grotius in a polemliterature of the period, has properly perished. In ical treatise, which, along with most of the angry 1618, B. was elected president of the synod of Dort; but his conduct there does not seem to have given satisfaction to the Frieslanders who had delegated him, for he was accused on his return of having exceeded his instructions. For one thing, however, B. deserves great credit, his translation of the Bible into the vernacular. Four other persons were associated with him in the task, but the translation of the Old Testament is chiefly B.'s work, and is characterised by taste, fidelity, and purity of language. It is still used in the Dutch churches. B. died in 1633, at Franeker, in the university of which he was primarius professor of divinity.

BOGHA'Z KIE'UI, KE'WEE, or KOI, a village of Asia Minor, pashalic of Sivas, 88 miles S. W. of Amasia. In its vicinity are the ruins of a magnificent temple, supposed to be that of Jupiter which Strabo mentions (lib. xii.). A perfect ground-plan of the building still remains; the length outside is 219 feet, the breadth, 140 feet, while the cella measures 87 feet by 65. There are several other ruins which seem to identify B. K. as the ancient Tavium.

BOG IRON ORE, a mineral of very variable composition, but regarded as consisting essentially of peroxide of iron and water; the peroxide of iron often amounts to about 60 per cent., the water to about 20. Phosphoric acid is usually present in quantities varying from 2 to 11 per cent. Silicic acid, alumina, oxide of manganese, and other substances, which seem accidentally present, make up the rest. B. I. O. occurs chiefly in alluvial soils, in bogs, meadows, lakes, &c. It is of a brown, yellowishbrown, or blackish-brown colour. Some of its varieties are earthy and friable, formed of dull dusty particles; some are in masses of an earthy fracture, often vesicular; and some more compact, with conchoidal fracture. It is abundant in some of the northern and western islands of Scotland, and in the northern countries of Europe generally; also in North America. When smelted, it yields good iron. See IRON, ORES OF. From what source the iron in B. I. O. is derived, has often been a subject of discussion; but Ehrenberg appears to have determined

from the davits; it weighed, with the crew and the gear, nearly three tons; nevertheless, this cutter, thus laden, was successfully and quickly lowered by one of the twelve men, to a depth of 40 feet from

means, under circumstances which would almost certainly have proved fatal under the old mode of lowering boats from the davits.

The apparatus above described is a mere appendage, not necessarily depending on the form and construction of the boat.

BOA'TSWAIN is a warrant-officer on board her Majesty's ships, who has charge of the boats, sails, rigging, cables, anchors, flags, and cordage. He is immediately under the master in some of these duties; he frequently examines the masts and yards, sails and ropes, to report on their condition and efficiency. He also keeps account of all the spare rigging, &c., and superintends the replacement of old by new. The B. has certain duties in connection with the crew: he assists in the necessary business of the ship, and in relieving the watch. In bad weather, he looks well to the boats and anchors, especially when night is coming on. A B. should be a good sailor, a good rigger, and a vigilant, sober, firm man. The boatswain's mate assists in all the above named duties; and to him is assigned the repulsive office of inflicting the flogging to which seamen are sometimes sentenced.

BO'BBIN-NET is the name of a kind of netfabric, usually made of cotton-thread. It is of the nature of lace, but is made in the lace-frame instead of by hand. The texture is peculiar: it consists in the interlacing of a set of long threads, representing the warp in common weaving, with a set of cross ones (the weft), in such a manner as to form a meshBobbin-net texture, texture. B. is one of the most elegant of textile fabrics, and forms an extensive branch of business, the chief seat of the manufacture in this country being Nottingham. See LACE MANU

FACTURE

BOBBINS are small wooden rollers, flanged at

Transverse section of Boat.

Besides these, there are three other kinds of B., although not of the genuine type, which deserve to be named as belonging to the class-viz.: the B. used for holding silk, which are flangeless, the ends being merely raised and rounded a little, by slightly hollowing the barrel. Then the bobbin, called in Scotland pirn, for delivering the weft from the shuttle, is simply a tapered pin, bored, it may be, throughout, with but the rudiments of a flange at the thick end; and next, the bobbin used for a similar purpose in lace-weaving, is merely a thin metal pulley, about the size of a halfpenny, deeply grooved in the rim, to hold the thread-weft. B., again, of a large size, and flanged and ribbed like the frame of a sand-glass, are called reels, are chiefly used in cordage-spinning, and are frequently of iron.

The B. used in the thread-manufacture are small, being from less than one inch to more than two, according as they are made for three or six ply-cord, and holding 200 yards each. The thread B., and those for warping, are of hard wood, turned out of the solid block; but the larger B., for rove, called slubbing B., are of pine, with the ends and barrels turned individually on the same arbor, and glued together.

The quantity of B. used in the various branches of business is enormous. In the thread manufacture alone, the wood required for them, in Britain only, is stated to be at least 40,000 tons annually; and assuming that a ton of wood produces 50 gross, taking the small and large together, we have 2,000,000 gross annually consumed in this manufacture, costing from 5d. to 18. 4d. a gross, according to size, or, at an average, at least £80,000.

This enormous production is, of course, the result of the machinery employed in it. The thread B. are turned by a self-acting lathe, which turns out

The quantity and value of the B. made use of, for warping and spinning, in the various manufacturing districts of the country, cannot be so well ascertained. It must be very great.

The price of the B. ranges from about 6s. a gross to about £18; or 2s. 6d. a piece for the large wooden B. used in cordage-spinning. The wood for B. is becoming scarce, so enormous is the supply wanted; and the trade is now under apprehension as to how it is to be kept up.

BO'BBIO, a town of Piedmont, capital of the province of the same name, is situated near the left bank of the Trebbia, about 37 miles north-east of Genoa. B. is an ancient place, having originated from a church and convent erected here in the end of the 6th, or beginning of the 7th c., in the crypt of which St Columbanus and some of his disciples lie buried. B. has a cathedral, an episcopal palace, and a palace belonging to the Malaspina family. It is guarded from the inundations of the Pellice by a long embankment, built by a money-grant from Oliver Cromwell, during whose protectorate the town was nearly destroyed by an inundation. Pop. 3976.

BO'BIA, or PIRATE ISLE, a singular island in the Bay of Amboise, off the coast of Guinea, Africa. Originally of considerable size, it has been greatly reduced by the action of the waves, and the same agency is still gradually lessening it. It is difficult of access, on account of the precipitous character of its shores, but is said to be densely peopled.

BO'B-O-LINK, or BO'BLINK, REED BIRD, or RICE BIRD (Dolichonyx oryzivorus), a bird nearly allied to buntings and sparrows, but of a genus characterised by stiff-pointed tail-feathers. It is rather larger than a yellow-hammer; and the male in his summer or nuptial plumage exhibits a fine contrast of colours, black, yellow, and white. The female differs greatly from the male in colours of plumage, yellowish-brown chiefly prevailing; and in the latter part of summer, the males assume the comparatively dull hues of the females. The B. is a bird of passage, spending the winter in the West Indies. In summer it is found as far north as the banks of the Saskatchewan, in lat. 54°, but is most plentiful in the Atlantic states and other eastern parts of America, where it is to be seen in every meadow and cornfield. It renders good service by the destruction of insects and their larvæ ; but the immense flocks which congregate on their return southwards in autumn, commit great ravages in the rice-plantations of Carolina. At this season, these birds become extremely fat, and are killed in great numbers for the table. Their flesh is delicate, and resembles that of the ortolan.

The B. generally makes its nest in a grassy meadow, an artless structure of a few dry stalks and leaves, with a lining of finer grass. It displays the same instinct with many other birds, of seeking to lead intruders away from its nest, by pretending great anxiety about some other part of the field. During the breeding-season, the males are very musical, singing mostly in the air, in which they seem to rise and fall in successive jerks. Their song is very pleasing, and is emitted with a volubility bordering on the burlesque.' On account of their beauty and powers of song, many are caught, caged, and sold in the New York and other markets.

It

used to confine the bowsprit down to the stem or BO'B-STAY, in the rigging of a ship, is a rope cut-water; its purpose is to keep the bowsprit steady, by counteracting the force of the stays of the foremast, which draw it upwards.

BO'CA (Span. meaning Mouth), a term applied to the entrance of various straits and rivers, chiefly in America.-1. B. Chica, the channel of 28 miles in length, which leads to Cartagena in New Granada. 2. B. de Navios, the largest and most southerly outlet of the Orinoco.-3. B. Grande, a bay of the Caribbean Sea, at the mouth of the Zucar, in Costa Rica.-4. B. del Toro, on the Caribbean Sea, in Costa Rica, in lat. 9° 20′ N., and long. 82° W.

BO'CCA TIGRIS, or BOGUE, the name given to that portion of the estuary of the Canton River (q. v.) extending north from lat. 22° 45′ N.; south of this point, the estuary is designated the Outer Waters." In the centre of the B. T. are the rocky islands of North and South Wantung, while on the east the B. T. has the islands of Anunghoy and Chuenpee, and on the west the Ty-cock-tow island. On these islands are situated the Bogue forts, which have been more than once captured by the British. The last time they were taken was in November 1856, the occasion of quarrel being the refusal of the Chinese to make proper reparation for the capture of a vessel under British protection, but alleged, on the other hand, to be nothing but a smuggling craft, contriving to hide its real character by hoisting the British flag.

BOCCA'CCIO, GIOVANNI, the celebrated author of the Decamerone, was born in Paris, 1313. He styled himself Da Certaldo, and was sometimes named П Certaldese by others, because his family sprang from Certaldo, a village in the Florentine territory. From an early period he displayed an invincible attachment to poetry, which his father attempted in various ways to thwart; but as soon as B. had attained his majority, he commenced to follow vigorously his own inclinations, poetising both in the Italian and Latin tongues, but not with any fine issues.' In prose he succeeded far better, developing quickly that airy grace of style which suits so admirably his light and lively tales, and which soon placed him in the highest rank of Italian prose-writers. He studied Dante closely, but did not confine himself to literature properly so called. In 1350, B. formed an intimate friendship with Petrarch, and, following his friend's example, collected many books and copied rare MSS., which he could not afford to buy. It is said that he was the first Italian who ever procured from Greece a copy of the Iliad and the Odyssey. He also wrote a Genealogy of the Gods, in 15 books, which was unquestionably the most comprehensive mythological work that Europe had as yet seen. But not only was B. one of the most learned men of his time, he was also one of the most enlightened in his scholarship. He helped to give a freer direction and a greater expansiveness to knowledge, stimulated his contemporaries to the study of Greek, and wished to substitute the wisdom of antiquity for the unprofitable scholasticism that prevailed.

While in Naples (1341), B. fell passionately in love with a young lady who was generally supposed to

be an illegitimate daughter of King Robert. His passion was returned, and to gratify his mistress, B. wrote Il Filocopo, a prose-romance, and afterwards La Teseide, the first attempt at romantic epic poetry, and written in ottava rima, of which B. may be considered the inventor. In 1342, he returned to Florence, but in 1344, went back to Naples, where he wrote his Amorosa Fiammetta, Il Filostrato, and L'Amorosa Visione. Here also he composed his famous Decamerone, to please Joanna, the daughter and successor of King Robert. It consists of 100 stories, ten of which are told each day by seven ladies and three gentlemen, who had fled from Florence during the frightful plague of 1348, to a country villa, and who try to banish fear by abandoning every moment to delicious gaiety. It is impossible to exaggerate the literary merits of the book. In abundance of incident especially, it is almost inexhaustible, though many of the stories are taken from older collections of Contes et Fabliaux. It is, however, unfortunately steeped in impurity. B. once more returned to Florence about 1350. He was now honoured with several diplomatic appointments by his fellow-citizens, and subsequently even thought of entering into holy orders as a penance for the immoral life he had previously led. From this artificial course of repentance he was wisely dissuaded by Petrarch, who advised him to be content with changing his conduct. In 1373, B. was appointed Dantean professor at Florence; that is to say, he was to deliver elucidatory lectures on the Divina Commedia of the great poet, and zealously devoted himself to the difficult task thus imposed on him; but his health failing, he resigned the office, and retired to his little property at Certaldo, where he died, December 21, 1375, 16 months after his friend Petrarch. Besides those works we have already mentioned, B. wrote Origine, Vita e Costumi di Dante Alighieri, and Commento sopra la Commedia di Dante. This commentary on the Divine Comedy extends only to the 17th canto of the Inferno. În Latin, B. wrote, beside the Genealogia Deorum, a work arranged in alphabetical order, De Montibus, Silvis, Fontibus, Lacubus, Fluminibus, &c.; De Casibus Virorum et Fœminarum Illustrium; De Claris Mulieribus, &c.

of

biade.

BOCCAGE, MARIE Anne Fiquet DU, a French poetess, was born at Rouen, 22d October 1710, and received her education in the monastery of the Assumption at Paris, where her poetic tendencies early developed themselves, though only furtively. She first appeared as an authoress in a small volume poems, published in 1746; next as an imitator of Milton in her Paradis Terrestre (1748); and in 1756, issued her most important work, La ColomThe letters which she addressed to her sister, Madame Duperron, while travelling through England, Holland, and Italy, are the most interesting things which have fallen from her pen: During her life, she was excessively admired and bepraised, especially by Voltaire, Fontenelle, and Clairaut. She used to be described as Forma Venus, arte Minerva! The complimentary poems addressed to her would, if collected, fill many volumes. She was elected member of the academies of Rome, Bologna, Padua, Lyon, and Rouen. She died 8th August 1802. Her poems fail now to explain the reputation she once enjoyed, and dispose us to believe that her personal attractions must have given a charm to her verses.

BOCHART, SAMUEL, a learned Protestant divine, was born of an ancient family at Rouen, in 1599. He very early exhibited remarkable talent, chiefly philological. After studying at Paris, Sedan, and Saumur, visiting England in 1621, and finishing his

education at Leyden, he was chosen pastor of the Protestant church at Caen, where he became very popular. In 1629, he gained great reputation by his victory, in a public discussion of several days' duration, over the famous Jesuit, Doctor Verin. The meetings gained additional éclat from the occasional presence of the Viceroy of Normandy, the Duke of Longueville. In 1646, appeared his Sacred Geography, bearing the title of Phaleg and Canaan. His Hierozoicon, or Scripture Zoology, to which he devoted many years of his life, appeared posthumously in 1675. In 1652, B. was invited to Stockholm by Queen Christina, and went thither accompanied by his friend Huet. The court-life, however, did not suit him, and his visit was short. He died suddenly, in 1667, while speaking at a meeting of the Caen Academy of Antiquaries. A complete edition of his works, with a life by Morin, was published at Leyden in 1712; and a new improved edition of the Hierozoicon, his most valuable work, at Leipsic, in 3 vols. 4to (1793— 1796), by Rosenmüller.

BO'CHNIA, a town of Austrian Galicia, capital of a circle of the same name, and about 25 miles eastsouth-east of Cracow. The houses are built chiefly of wood. There are extensive mines of rock-salt in its vicinity, which employ upwards of 500 miners, and yield annually about 13,000 tons of salt. Pop.

5300.

BÖCKH, AUGUSTUS, the most erudite classical antiquary of Germany at the present day, was born 24th November 1785, at Carlsruhe, and entered the university of Halle in 1803. The prelections of Wolf determined him to the science of philology. His first publication was Commentatio in Platonis qui vulgo fertur Minoem (Halle, 1806). In 1808, appeared his Græcæ Tragœdiæ Principum, Æschyli, Sophoclis, Euripidis, num ea quæ supersunt et genuina omnia sint. In 1809, he became ordinary professor at the university of Heidelberg; and in 1811, he was translated to the chair of Rhetoric and Ancient Literature, at Berlin, where he has taught for upwards of forty years, forming many excellent scholars, and extending his reputation through all the learned circles of Europe. His conception of philology as an organically constructed whole, which aims at nothing short of an intellectual reproduction of antiquity, excited for a long time great opposition among his professional contemporaries, but has undoubtedly given an impetus to a deeper study of the old classical world. His lectures include not merely a grammatico-historical interpretation of the ancient authors, but also archæology proper, the history of ancient literature, philosophy, politics, religion, and social life. The four great works of B. which have, in fact, opened up new paths in the study of antiquity, are, 1st, his edition of Pindar rhythm of the poet, as well as his artistic skill, are (2 vols., Leip. 1811-1822), in which the metre and investigated and discussed with profound knowledge of the subject. 2d, The Political Economy of Athens (2 vols., Berlin, 1817), a work which remains unsurpassed for subtle research, surprising results, and clear exposition. It treats of the prices of goods, rate of workmen's wages, rent of houses and land, and other points of commercial economy, as well as of the larger questions of the state income and expenditure. It has been translated into English by Sir George Cornewall Lewis, under the title of The Public Economy of Athens (Lond. 2d edit. revised, 1842). 3d, Investigations concerning the Weights, Coins, and Measures of Antiquity (Berl. 1838). 4th, Records of the Maritime Affairs of Attica (Berl. 1840). The most important of his lesser works are the Development of the Doctrines of Philolaus,

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