Page images
PDF
EPUB

mon onele amiral; One of your brothers is a distinguished general, and the other an admiral of great reputation, L'un de vos frères est un général distingué, et l'autre un amiral de grande réputation; What is your father's profession? He is a physician, Quelle est la profession de monsieur votre père? Il est médecin, or, C'est un médecin. In the first sentence, the names général and amiral are used as mere adjectives; no idea of individuality is attached to these words; the second sentence, on the contrary, points out the persons spoken of not only as Occupying the ranks of general and admiral, but as being among those of the same rank, the one a general, and the other an admiral, of a particular kind, and the adjective un serves to convey this view of the mind. Remark.-Whenever the adjective grand is used with the following noun to designate a certain situation in the government of a country, the two words should then be united by a hyphen, as forming but one word, and un should not be expressed; as in, Mr. M** is a grand-officer of the legion of honour, Monsieur M** est grand-officier de la légion d'honneur. The same remark applies to any expression of the same character. Of A before a Noun or a Proposition used in Apposition in English.-Whenever a is used in English before a noun or an expression used in apposition to another, un is not expressed in French; as, The best coffee comes from Mocha, a town of Arabia Felix, Le meilleur café vient de Moka, ville de l'Arabie heureuse.

tive sentence used negatively is a mere form of language to express an affirmation, a is used in French as in English, and is expressed by un; as in, Have you not a knife? meaning, You have a knife, have you not? N'avez-vous pas un couteau? But if the sentence be intended to ascertain if really you have a knife or not, it becomes partitive, and a used instead of any is expressed by de; as N'avez-vous pas de couteau? If the sentence be affirmative instead of being interrogative, a, if used in English, should be expressed by de before a noun, and by un before an adjective; as in, No, sir, I have not a knife, Non, monsieur, je n'ai pas de couteau.

Of the Place of the Adjective A, Un.—Un is always placed before the noun which it qualifies, whether this noun is preceded or not by an adjective: I have a bird, J'ai un oiseau.

Exceptions. (1.) With the adjective tout, un is placed between that adjective and the noun which it qualifies; as, I have spent a whole evening at your father's, J'ai passé toute une soirée chez votre père. But if tout should be used as an adverb, meaning entirely, quite, &c., the adjective un might be placed indifferently before or after it; as in, That is quite a different affair, C'est une tout autre affaire, or, C'est tout une autre affaire.

(2.) Whenever the nouns monsieur, madame, and mademoiselle, are used with the pronoun tel, to designate a person in a vague and indefinite manner, corresponding Of A placed in English after What, be- in English to the expressions, Mister, Misfore a Noun, preceded or not by an Adjec-tress, or Miss So-and-so, the adjective un tive.-A used in English after the pronoun is placed in French between the above what, before a noun or an adjective, is not nouns and the pronoun tel; as, Monsieur expressed in French. What a beautiful un tel; Madame une telle; Mademoiselle morning! Quelle belle matinée! une telle.

Of A placed in English before a Noun expressing measure or Weight.-A, used in English before a noun expressing measure or weight, is rendered in French by the article the; Corn sells for eight shillings a bushel, Le blé se vend huit schellings le boisseau.

Of A placed in English before a Word expressing a Period of Time.-When a is used in English at the end of a sentence, before a noun expressing any period of time, it is rendered in French by the preposition by, par; as in, My father earns ten dollars a-week, Mon père gagne dix gourdes par

semaine.

(3.) A used in English with the adjective such, always follows it, but in French it is placed before that adjective; as in, Such conduct is shocking, Une telle conduite est choquante.

Of cases in which A or One is not expressed in French.-A or One is not expressed in French before the numerical adjectives hundred and thousand; as in, How many persons were there at the party last night? One hundred. Combien de personnes y avait-il au bal hier soir? Cent.

One, used as a pronoun in English is not expressed in French in sentences like the following: If you wish for a dog, I can give you a pretty one, Si vous désirez un chien, je peux vous en donner un joli.

Of the Adjective A used in English before a Noun, preceded or not by an Adjective, in an Interrogative or Affirmative Sentence Of Cases in which A may be expressed by used Negatively. Whenever an interroga-the Article The in French.-There are a few

cases in which a is expressed by the article
The in French; as in, I wish you a good
morning, or evening, Je vous souhaite le bon
jour, or,
le bon soir (idiomatical). But we
say, very properly: I wish you a pleasant
evening, or morning, Je vous souhaite une
agréable soirée or matinée. However, the
former expressions are more elegantly used
than the latter, a always implying an idea
of peculiarity which does not suit the mean-
ing of the nouns head, nose, chin, &c., for a
man has but one head, one nose, one chin,
&c.

A PAIR OF SPECTACLES.

spec

[blocks in formation]

As wide as the ridge of the nose is; in short,
Designed to sit close to it just like a saddle.

Again, would your lordship a moment suppose ('Tis a case that has happened and may be again) That a visage or countenance had not a nose.

Pray who would, or who could, wear spectacles
then?

"On the whole it appears, and my argument shows
With reasoning the court will never condemn,
That the spectacles plainly were made for the nose,
And the nose was as plainly intended for them."

WHO is not familiar with a pair of spectacles? We cannot walk the crowded city, we cannot pass through a secluded village," nay, we can scarcely enter a house, but what we encounter some fellow human being looking at us through a pair of tacles. Bridging the nasal member, they are seen on the faces of the rich and the poor, the old and the young, the learned and the unlearned. The student who pores over his books, the merchant who sits day by day over his ledger, and the itinerant grinder as he whets the sharp edge of the razor, all call spectacles into their service. There is not a section of society, from kings on their thrones to peasants in their cottages, which does not call them to their aid-so universally useful are a pair of spectacles.

But, query? Are spectacles always required by those who wear them? We can answer the question in the negative. Years ago, we wore them constantly in doors and out of doors; but now as the grey hairs begin to fall over our forehead, although we have tried and still do try our sight with reading as much as most people, we can manage to do without them. And such, no doubt, is the case with hundreds and thousands of people of both sexes. For instance, the fop who ogles the fair with his glasses could see her pretty face equally as well without as with them; but then it gives him the appearance of a gentleman, and so he uses them. So also, the empty-pated could see things with as clear a vision by his natural sight as with the aid of lenses, but then he would not look half so wise, and so he wears them. To them, and to many others, "The Report of an adjudged case not to be found in any of the books," written by the poet, Cowper, is strictly applicable.

It reads thus:

Between nose and eyes a strange contest arose-
The spectacles set them unhappily wrong:

Then shifting his side (as a lawyer knows how),
But what were his arguments few people know,
He pleaded again in behalf of the eyes:
For the court did not think they were equally
wise.

So his lordship decreed with a grave, solemn tone,
Decisive and clear, without one if or but-
That whenever the nose put his spectacles on,
By daylight or candlelight, eyes should be shut.

Spectacles, when worn without being required to aid a defective vision, clearly belong to the nose, but when a defective vision requires them they as clearly belong to the eyes; and a precious boon are they to those

so afflicted. The man who invented them is as fairly entitled to a monument in some conspicuous square of the great Babylon, London, as the Duke of York, or even the immortal Nelson!

The defects of sight which spectacles are designed to aid are various; two only requires especial notice in this paper; namely, myopia, or near-sightedness, and presbyopia or far-sightedness.

When the image of surrounding objects are brought to a focus in the eye before they reach the retina, such an eye is myopic. Individals thus affected see all objects indistinctly that are viewed at the ordinary distance of distant vision. To remedy this defect, they bring them within such a distance of the eye as will insure their images being brought to an exact focus upon the

retina. But this defect is one that is little thought of, and is easily remedied by glasses. The manner in which concave glasses improve the vision of near-sighted persons is, by causing a divergence of the rays of light before the eye, thus counteracting the over-refractive condition of that organ. The glasses most useful to near-sighted persons are double concaves, of equal concavity on each side. They are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., beginning with the longest focus or shallowest concavity. There is, however, no uniform standard adopted in the manufacture of these glasses. What one optician calls No. 1, another calls No. 2. It is therefore advisable that those who wish to find a pair of spectacles adapted to his wants should try a series of them, and they should be content with the lowest number with which they can see objects clearly across the street. It is also advisable not to wear them constantly, but only on Occasions when the wearer absolutely requires their

assistance.

Far-sightedness is a state of vision to which old age is almost invariably subject; and is an affection the reverse of the one just described. Either the refractive powers of the eye are too feeble, or its axis is shorter than is natural; the result of which is an imperfectly-formed image on the retina, from the rays of light not conveying soon enough to be brought to a focus. The time of life at which far-sightedness first shows itself, is generally about forty-five, and after it has once appeared, it generally goes on increasing, so that an individual thus affected requires to change his glasses from time to time for those of a higher power.

Now if spectacles had only been invented for the above two ills of life, they would have proved a great blessing; but the eye is subject to other infirmities. It is sometimes afflicted with weakness, and then coloured spectacles, green, blue, or grey, are found to be very useful. There is also another affection of the eye, called visus duplicatus, or double vision, to aid which a double concave lens has been used with great advantage. Indeed, there is no defect of sight which cannot be greatly assisted by the skill of the optician. Varieties in the conformation of the eyes, and in the manner and degree in which they are affected by use, render it impossible to lay down any rules for the focal length of convex glasses for persons of a given age; yet the following table, extracted from Dr. Kitchener's "Economy of the Eyes" gives the average result of fifty years experience of an eminent optician, and may prove useful.

[merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][ocr errors][subsumed][subsumed][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small]

It has been conceived, though with little foundation, that spectacles were in use among the ancients. Most authorities, however, give the latter part of the thirteenth century as the period of their invention. Some attribute the invention to Alexander Spina, a monk of Pisa, and suppose its date to be about 1300; but Roger Bacon, who died some years before, makes mention of magnifying glasses, which justifies the belief that something like what we call spectacles were in use several years earlier. From that period to the present time, varions alterations have been suggested; but the simplest form of spectacle-glasses has been the one most used, and the small extent to which any of the alterations have been adopted seems to indicate that the common forms are, on the whole, the best, although others may have advantages in certain circumstances. Dr. Franklin thus describes a curious pair of spectacles which he used to wear: "The same convexity of glass through which a man sees clearest and best at a distance proper for reading is not the best for greater distances. I had therefore formerly two pairs of spectacles, which I shifted occasionally, as in travelling I sometimes read, and often want to regard the prospects. Finding this change troublesome, and not always sufficiently ready, I had the glasses cut out, and half of each kind associated in the same circle: the least convex, for viewing distant objects, in the upper half of the circle: and the most convex, proper to reading, in the lower half of the frame! By this means, as I wear my spectacles constantly, I have only to move my eyes up or down, as I want to see distinctly far or near; the proper glasses being always ready. Although I cannot distinguish a letter, even of large print, by the naked eye, with the assistance of this invention my eyes are as useful to me as ever they were; and if all the other defects and infirmities of old age could be as easily and cheaply remedied, it would be worth while to live a good deal longer."

Every one knows that the frames of spectacles are of various material-gold, silver, steel, and tortoise-shell. If tortoise-shell frames be used, the front should be black, as the variegated colour might be hurtful to the eyes. In the days of our childhood such frames were very common; and while we write we can almost fancy we see an old lady who used to be called "Old Mother Foureyes" looking at us through a huge pair of spectacles thus mounted. At the present day, light steel frames are the most common, but some persons prefer silver, though considerably heavier. Dr. Kitchener remarks. that though the superior lightness and elasticity of a steel frame may for a time render it pleasanter than one of silver, the latter soon adapts itself exactly and comfortably to the head, and becomes infinitely easier and pleasanter than the springy steel. A Mr. Hawkins, some years ago, suggested an improvement with a view to obviate the necessity of supporting the spectacles on the nose. He introduced a pair of extra arms or joints, which passed upwards over the temples; these, in addition to the common horizontal joints, held the spectacles to the head without the necessity of resting them on the bridge of the nose, and enabled the wearer to place them at any required distance from the eye. We are not sure whether the primitive mode of wearing spectacles adopted by the Chinese is not superior to such an improvement. A wood-cut before us, depicting a Chinese wearing spectacles of rock crystal polished with the powder of corundum, represents a pair of these primitive optics slung over his ears with silken strings and weights; and as the wearer pores over his book, they impart to his countenance a most sapient appearance. The use of spectacles among the Chinese is very remarkable; for, without knowing anything of that theory of optics which treats of the convergence and divergence of rays of light by lenses of different shapes, they use both convex and concave glasses, or rather crystals, to assist their sight.

The European optician obtains the material from which his lenses are made from the flint-glass manufacturer. It has been ascertained that there is a certain state of fused glass best calculated for optical pur poses; and when the mass has attained this state, about seven pounds weight is taken up in a conical ladle, and blown into the form of a hollow cylinder. This cylinder is cut open and flattened into a sheet twenty inches long by fourteen wide, and from two to three eighths of an inch in thickness. In this form it passes into the hands of the optician. |

HOW MONEY IS MADE. INGOTS of gold or silver are first thrown into melting pots and reduced to fluidity. After this they are cast into bars of various sizes, proportionate to the kind of coins to be produced from them. These bars are next passed forward to rolling mills of great power (we speak here of the English Mint), and laminated, or drawn out by pressure to a state of attenuity marvellously different to the rigid form in which they left the moulds. The bars, in fact, are now converted into ribands, flexible as the wand of Harlequin; and these, being beautifully adjusted in thick ness for the pieces to be obtained from them, are passed to a set of pinching-presses, where they are perforated-honey-combedfrom end to end. The discs of metal thus obtained are blank sovereigns, very much resembling shankles brass buttons; or blank sixpences, as it may happen to be sovereign or sixpenny "ribbons" which are being dealt with; and are then carried forward to the weighing machines. Marking machines raise partially the protecting edges of the future coins, which are then again submitted to a fiery ordeal in the shape of an annealing oven. This operation softens and tempers them. They are made as young ladies are said to be-susceptible to impressions, and are then pickled, or blanched, in a weak solution of sulphuric acid. This gives them a bright surface, and removes all impurities. Drying is the next process, and this is performed over a hot iron plate-a la muffin and crumpet. The blanks are now ready to receive the "image and superscription" of the Queen-God bless her! This finishingtouch is given in the press-room. The pieces are now weighed out to a number of boys, who attend and feed the presses with them. On one side of the presses blanks are put into tubes, and on the other they are thrown out coins. They get, however, a mighty hard squeeze in the "middle passage," between two beautifully-engraved head and reverse dies, and are at the same time prevented expanding unduly by means of a collar of steel, fluted or milled on its inner circumference, which encompasses each individual piece at the moment the dies strike it. The outer circumference of the piece of gold or silver becomes thus serrated, or milled at the instant of coinage. The finished ssoereigns or sixpences, of whatever coins may be in process of manipulation, now tumble out from the presses in rapid and glittering succession, and slide down inclined planes into trays.

ORIGINAL POETRY.

MATERNAL LOVE.

АH! if there be one trace of Eden left
On this dull earth: one ray of love divine
To light our weary pilgrimage of sin,

And soften the rough path, which all must tread:
Surely, 'tis concentrated in a mother's love.
Ah! she alone can tell the kindled hope
And bright anticipations which arose
Within her breast, ere she beheld her babe.
Though well she knew long nights of restless
sleep,

And days of pain must come e'er she could clasp
The tiny treasure to her throbbing breast.
Who, who, can tell the wealth of love bestowed
On the unknown, the nameless little one?
Perchance the jealous thought would oft intrude,
Another's hand, not mine, may rear my tender
child:

Another's ear may list its cry:
Another's voice may lu him to repose:
Another watch beside his little bed:
Support the tiny form, whose tott'ring steps
Proclaim how needful of a mother's care,

Is that all precious one: while she whose love
Begun e'er he had seen the light of day
May slumber in the chill embrace of death.
Well may her heart with fear grow sad and cold,
As thoughts like these come stealing o'er her
brain;

And fervent is the prayer in which she seeks
Divine protection for her little one.

Her love, unquenched by coldness or neglect,
Will brightly burn through long and weary years;
Still will she fondly picture with delight
When the first smile illum'd his infant face,
When first he lisped the endearing name of
mother.

Though stern ambition may enshroud his soul,
Or thirst for wealth, or fame, enchain his thoughts,
Some tender memory must surely come
Of her, who loved him with a mother's love.
ELIZABETH H.

[blocks in formation]

CHEERFULNESS.

YES, I am ready for the cloud to come,

That will for ever darken my life's sun-
"Tis a hard task to say, "Thy will be done;"
To have the soul imprisoned in its home,
Because 'tis welcomed in no other dome.

It is most hard on sorrow's path to shun,
Despair's proposal by her side to roam;
For it is easy to a suffering one,

To bear about a countenance of gloom

That all by looking in the tearful eyes, May learn for him to feel and sympathise, And speak with pity when he's in the tomb;

But 'tis forbidden-we must speak and smile, Even though our hearts be breaking all the while! WINNIE.

SAD MEMORIES.
By E. W. HUDDLESTON.
OFT in passionate appealing,
Oft in love-congealing hate,
Oft in smiles despair concealing,
Broken-hearted, desolate,

Have I wrestled with my sorrow,
Yet my tears unbidden flow;
Doth the unrevealed to-morrow
Any hidden solace show?
Sitting musing o'er the olden
Beauty of the passed-away,
Memory-hidden, lives the golden
Radiance of evanished day;
Gazing on the flickering glories
Panorama'd on the wall,
Listening to the ancient stories,
Murmured through the lonely hall.
Silvery songs from harping angels,
Silent looks from saintly eyes,
Faltering tones, Hope's faint evangels,
Whispers floating from the skies;
Dim and dreamy ghosts immortal,
Flit before my trembling eye,
All that issues from the portal
Of a life-loved memory!
Many treasured tendernesses,
Souvenirs of the bliss of yore-
Faded blossoms, silken tresses,
Clinging memories, evermore
Breathing of the blighted maiden,
Whom I loved in days gone by;
Thoughts of all things anguish-laden
Hover here continually.

Ever in my spirit bursteth

Fierce and unattained desire For the peace that ne'er returnethWho shall still this quenchless fire? Is there in the cloudy morning,

Aught serene behind the veil ? Must I ever deem in scorning Hope a mere imagined tale? Shall a joy's-sun vivid shining, Sorrow's dew exhale in tearsBanish all the bitter pining,

Conquer all the woes of years? Questioning, but answered never, Save by echoes, still must I Wander wearily for ever Pondering on Memory!

« PreviousContinue »