What is the second?

Give an example.

What does a musical close require?

What fault should be avoided?

What are the two degrees of the higher species of harmony? What three classes of objects may be represented by the sound of words?

Give examples of the first.

What authors abound in instances of the second?

Give an example of the third.

ORIGIN AND NATURE OF FIGURATIVE
LANGUAGE.

FIGURES may be described to be that language which is prompted either by the imagination or passions. They are commonly divided by rhetoricians into two great classes, figures of words and figures of thought. The former are commonly called tropes, and consist in a word's being used to signify something different from its original meaning. Hence, if the word be changed, the figure is destroyed. Thus, for instance, 'light ariseth to the upright in darkness." Here the trope consists in "light and darkness," not being taken literally, but substituted for comfort in adversity; to which conditions of life they are supposed to bear some resemblance. The other class, termed figures of thought, supposes the figure to consist in the sentiment only, while the words are used in their literal sense as in exclamations, interrogations, apostrophes, and comparisons; where, though the words be varied, or translated from one language into another, the same figure is still preserved. This distinction, however, is of small importance, as practice cannot be assisted by it; nor is it always very perspicuous.

Tropes are derived in part from the barrenness of language; but principally from the influence which the imagination has over all language. The imagination never contemplates any one idea or object as single and alone; but as accompanied by others, which

may be considered as its accessories. These accessories often operate more forcibly upon the mind, than the principal idea itself. They are, perhaps, in their nature more agreeable, or more familiar to our conceptions; or remind us of a greater variety of important circumstances. Hence the name of the accessory or correspondent idea is substituted; although the principal has a proper and well known name of its own. Thus, for example, when we design to point out the period, in which a state enjoyed most reputation or glory, we might easily employ the proper words for expressing this; but, as this, in our imagination, is readily connected with the flourishing period of a plant or tree, we prefer this correspondent idea, and say, "The Roman empire flourished most under Augustus." The leader of a faction, is a plain expression; but, because the head is the principal part of the human body, and is supposed to direct all the animal operations; resting on this resemblance, we say, "Catiline was the head of his party."

We shall now examine why tropes and figures contribute to the beauty and grace of style. By them language is enriched, and made more copious. Hence words and phrases are multiplied for expressing all sorts of ideas; for describing even the smallest differences; the nicest shades and colours of thought; which by proper words alone cannot possibly be expressed. They also give dignity to style, which is degraded by the familiarity of common words. Figures have the same effect on language, that a rich and splendid apparel has on a person of rank and dignity. In prose compositions, assistance of this kind is often requisite; to poetry it is essential. To say, "the sun rises," is common and trite; but it becomes a magnificent image, as expressed by Thomson:

But yonder comes the powerful king of day,
Rejoicing in the east.-

Figures furnish the pleasure of enjoying two objects, presented at the same time to our view, without confusion; the principal idea, together with its accessory, which gives it the figurative appearance. When, for example, instead of "youth," we say "the morning

of life," the fancy is instantly entertained with all the corresponding circumstances between these two objects. At the same instant we behold a certain period of human life, and a certain time of the day so connected, that the imagination plays between them with delight, and views at once two similar objects without embarrassment.

Figures are also attended with the additional advantage of giving us a more clear and striking view of the principal objects, than if it were expressed in simple terms, and freed from its accessory idea. They exhibit the object, on which they are employed, in a picturesque form; they render an abstract conception in some degree an object of sense; they surround it with circumstances, which enable the mind to lay hold of it steadily, and to contemplate it fully. By a welladapted figure, even conviction is assisted, and a truth is impressed upon the mind with additional liveliness and force. Thus, in the following passage of Dr. Young, "When we dip too deep in pleasure, we always stir a sediment, that renders it impure and noxious." When an image presents such a resemblance between a moral and a sensible idea, it serves, like an argument from analogy, to enforce what the author advances, and to induce belief.

All tropes being founded on the relation which one object bears to another, the name of the one may be substituted for that of the other; and by this the vivacity of the idea is generally increased. The relation between a cause and its effect, is one of the first and most obvious. Hence the cause is sometimes figuratively put for the effect. Thus Mr. Addison, writing of Italy, says,

Blossoms, and fruits, and flowers together rise,
And the whole year in gay confusion lies.

Here the "whole year" is plainly meant to signify the productions of the year. The effect is also often put for the cause; as gray hairs" for "old age," which produces gray hairs; and "shade" for the trees," which cause the shade. The relation between the container and the thing contained is so intimate and apparent, as naturally to give rise to tropes.

-Ille impiger hausit

Spumantem paterem, et pleno se proluit auro,

where it is obvious, that the cup and gold are put for the liquor, contained in the golden cup. The name of a country is often used to signify its inhabitants. To pray for the assistance of Heaven is the same with praying for the assistance of God, who is in heaven. The relation between a sign and the thing signified is another source of tropes. Thus,

Cedant arma toga; concedat laurea linguæ.

Here the "toga," which is the badge of the civil professions, and the "laurel," that of military honours, are each of them put for the civil and military characters themselves. Tropes, founded on these several relations of cause and effect, container and contained sign and thing signified, are called by the name of metonymy.

When a trope is founded on the relation between an antecedent and its consequent, it is called a metalepsis; as in the Roman phrase, "fuit" or "vixit," to signify that one was dead. Fuit Ilium et ingens gloria Teucrum," expresses that the glory of Troy

is no more.

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When the whole is put for a part, or a part for the whole; a genus for a species, or a species for a genus; the singular number for the plural, or the plural for the singular; in general, when any thing less, or any thing more, is put for the precise object meant; the figure is then termed a synecdoche. We say, for instance, A fleet of so many sail," instead of so many ships," we frequently use the "head" for the "person," the "pole" for the "earth," the "waves" for the sea." An attribute is often used for its subject; as, 'youth and beauty," for the "young and beautiful;" and sometimes a subject for its attribute. But the relation by far the most fruitful of tropes, is similitude, which is the sole foundation of metaphor.

What are figures?

How are they divided?

What are the former called?

METAPHOR is founded entirely on the resemblance which one object bears to another. It is, therefore, nearly allied to simile or comparison; and is indeed a comparison in an abridged form. When we say of a great minister, "he upholds the state, like a pillar, which supports the weight of an edifice," we evidently make a comparison; but, when we say of him, he is "the pillar of the state," it becomes a metaphor.

Of all the figures of speech, none approaches so near to painting, as metaphor. It gives light and strength to description; makes intellectual ideas in some degree visible, by giving them colour, substance, and sensible qualities. To produce this effect, however, a delicate hand is requisite; for by a little inaccuracy we may introduce confusion, instead of promoting perspicuity. Several rules, therefore, must be given for the proper management of metaphors.

The first rule respecting metaphors is, they must be suited to the nature of the subject; neither too numerous, nor too gay, nor too elevated for it; we must neither attempt to force the subject by the use of them into a degree of elevation not congruous to it; nor, on the contrary, suffer it to fall below its proper dignity. Some metaphors are beautiful in poetry, which would be unnatural in prose; some are graceful in orations, which would be highly improper in historical or philosophical composition. Figures are the dress of sentiment. They should consequently be adapted to the ideas which they are intended to adorn. The second rule respects the choice of objects,