stance, decomposing the solutions of lime and strontia in sugar, by double affinity. The power possessed by tartaric acid of preventing the precipitation of iron and some other metals from their muriatic solution, is well known from the observations of M. Rose and others. A similar effect is produced by sugar, according to M. Peschier, if the mixture be boiled, but not otherwise. Ann. de Chim. et Phys. xxxi. 197.

In making solutions of unrefined sugar for culinary purposes, a gray-colored substance is found frequently precipitated. It is probable that this proceeds from a superabundance of lime, which has been used in clarifying the juice of the sugar-cane at the plantations abroad. Sugar with this imperfection is known among the refiners of this article by the name of weak. And it is justly termed so, the precipitated matter being nothing but lime which has attracted carbonic acid from the sugar (of which there is a great probability), or from the air of the atmosphere. A bottle in which I had kept a solution of lime in sugar for at least four years, closely corked, was entirely incrusted with a yellowishcolored matter, which on examination was found to be entirely carbonate of lime.

In the ordinary refining of raw sugars, from twenty to thirty-five per cent. of melasses are separated, of which a considerable part, probably two-thirds, are formed by the high heat used in the concentration of the syrup. Various plans have been contrived to diminish this production

of melasses. One of these consisted in surrounding the sugar boiler with oil or steam at a high temperature, instead of exposing it to a naked fire. In a second, the boiler is covered at top, and by means of an air-pump the atmospheric pressure is removed, so as to favor ebullition, and rapid evaporation, at moderate heats.

The celebrated chemist, Mr. Howard, took out a patent for his plan, which is undoubtedly the most scientific and productive of any; but requires superior skill and very minute attention in the manufacturer. No blood is used for clarification. This is accomplished by a system of most ingenious canvass filters, aided by the intermixture with the syrup of a small quantity of pasty gypsum and alumina, made by saturating a solution of alum with quicklime. In the final purification the base of the inverted sugar cone is covered with a stratum of very pure saturated syrup, instead of moist pipe-clay.

The third method is founded on the property which animal charcoal (bone-black) possesses, of destroying vegetable coloring matter. Perhaps the combination of the last two modes promises the best results.

A fourth process for refining sugar is that of Mr. Daniel Wilson, for which a patent was granted. The specification is in the thirty-fourth volume of the Repertory, p. 134. The pan is to be charged with strong lime-water, the sugar added, and the fire set in the usual manner. For every hundred weight of sugar used, a solution is to be made of four ounces of sulphate of zinc in as small a quantity of water as will dissolve it. When the sugar in the pan is melted, the solution of sulphate of zinc is added, and the whole well stirred. The oxide of zinc combines with

the extractive matter, tannin, and gallic acid, and renders them insoluble, while the sulphuric acid, in combination with the lime, becomes insoluble. When raw sugar contains much acid, and a strong grain is required, take one ounce of lime in powder for every four ounces of sulphate of zinc, and as much water as will form a milk of lime, which is added to the solution of sugar in the pan, about five minutes after the solution of sulphate of zinc has been added. This purification of sugar by separating impurities chemically combined with it, is employed with much advantage in conjunction with the patent filtering apparatus invented by Mr. John Sutherland. The solution of sugar brought to the boiling point is run through the filter, and afterwards boiled to a proof. Mr. Wilson boils the syrup in a pan, having a coil of tinned copper or pure tin tubes placed along its bottom and sides, through which a constant stream of strongly heated oil, or rather fatty matter, is made to pass. The oxide of zinc, precipitated previously by adding a solution of the salt to lime-water, is also recommended, as well as the oxide of tin.

Mr. Kirchoff, an ingenious Russian chemist, accidentally discovered that starch is convertible into sugar, by being boiled for some time with a very dilute sulphuric acid. Saussure showed that 100 parts of starch yield 110 of sugar. He concluded that this sugar was merely a com pound of water and starch. According to his analysis starch consists of

The abstraction of a little hydrogen and carbon would convert it into sugar. But no carbonic acid or other gas is extricated during the conversion, according to Vogel's experiments. I find that potatoes digested with dilute sulphuric acid yield sugar cheaply and abundantly. The acid is afterwards removed by chalk; and the strained liquor left to repose, after due evaporation, affords crystals of sugar. From starch sugar, good beer has been made. I would recommend potatoes for this purpose. They are washed, grated down, and treated with the dilute acid for a day or two at a temperature of 212°.

M. Braconnot has recently extended our views concerning the artificial production of sugar and gum. Sulphuric acid (specific gravity 1.827) mixed with well dried elm dust, became very hot, and on being diluted with water, and neutralised with chalk, afforded a liquor which became gummy on evaporation. Shreds of linen triturated in a glass mortar with sulphuric acid yield a similar gum. Nitric acid has a similar power. If the gummy matter from linen be boiled for some time, with dilute sulphuric acid, we obtain a crystallisable sugar, and an acid, which M. Braconnot calls the vegeto-sulphuric acid. The conversion of wood also into sugar will no doubt appear remarkable; and, when persons not familiarised with chemical speculations are told that a pound weight of rags can be converted into more than a pound weight of sugar, they may regard the statement as a piece of pleasantry, though nothing, says M. Braconnot, can be more real.

Silk is also convertible into gum by sulphuric acid. Twelve grammes of glue, reduced to powder, were digested with a double weight of concentrated sulphuric acid without artificial heat. In twenty hours the liquid was not more colored than if mere water had been employed. A decilitre of water was then added, and the whole was boiled for five hours, with renewal of the water, from time to time, as it wasted. It was next diluted, saturated with chalk, filtered, and evaporated to a syrupy consistence, and left in repose for a month. In this period a number of granular crystals had separated, which adhered pretty strongly to the bottom of the vessel, and had a very decided saccharine taste. This sugar crystallises much more easily than cane sugar. The crystals are gritty under the teeth, like sugar-candy, and in the form of flattened prisms or tabular groups. Its taste is nearly as saccharine as grape sugar; its solubility in water scarcely exceeds that of sugar of milk. Boiling alcohol, even when diluted, has no action on this sugar. By distillation it yields ammonia, indicating the presence of azote. This sugar combines intimately with nitric acid without sensibly decomposing it, even with the assistance of heat, and there results a peculiar crystallised acid, to which the name nitro-saccharine has been given.-Annales de Chimie, xii., or Tilloch's Magazine, vol. 55 and 56.

The varieties of sugar are, cane sugar, maple sugar, liquid sugar of fruits, sugar of figs, sugar of grapes, starch sugar, the mushroom sugar of Braconnot, manna, sugar of gelatin, sugar of honey, and sugar of diabetes.

Its

Sugar of grapes does not affect a peculiar form. It is deposited from its alcoholic solution in small grains, which have little consistence, are grouped together, and which constitute tubercles similar to those of cauliflowers. When put in the mouth it produces at first a sensation of coolness, to which succeeds a saccharine taste not very strong. Hence, to sweeten to an equal degree the same quantity of water, we must employ two and a half times as much sugár of grapes as of that of the cane. In other respects it possesses all the properties of cane sugar. extraction is very easy. The expressed juice of the grapes is composed of water, sugar, mucilage, bitartrate of potash, tartrate of lime, and a small quantity of other saline matters. We pour into it an excess of chalk in powder, or rather of pounded marble. There results, especially on agitation, an effervescence, due to the unsaturated tartaric acid. The liquor is then clarified with whites of eggs or blood. It is next evaporated in copper pans till it marks a density of 1.32 at the boiling temperature. It is now allowed to cool. At the end of some days it concretes into a crystalline mass, which, when drained, washed with a little cold water, and strongly compressed, constitutes sugar. In the south of France, where this operation was some years back carried on on the great scale, to prevent fermentation of the must, there was added to this a little sulphate of lime, or it was placed in tuns in which sulphur matches had been previously made to burn. The oxygen of the small quantity of air left in the tuns being thus abstracted by the sulphurous acid, fermentation did not take place. By this means the must can be preserved a considerable time; whereas, in the ordinary way, it would lose its saccharine taste at the end of a few days and become vinous. Must thus treated is said to be muted. The syrup was evaporated to the density of only 1.285.-Proust, Ann. de Chimie, lvii. 131; and the Collection of Memoirs published by Parmentier in 1813.

It is this species of sugar which is obtained from starch and woody fibre by the action of dilute sulphuric acid.

Sugar of diabetes has sometimes the sweetening force of sugar of grapes; occasionally much less.

Braconnot's mushroom sugar is much less sweet than that of the cane. It crystallises with remarkable facility, forming long quadrilateral prisms with square bases. It yields alcohol by fermentation.

All honeys contain two species of sugar; one similar to sugar of the grape, another like the uncrystallisable sugar of the cane (melasses). These combined, and mingled in different proportions with an odorant matter, constitute the honeys of good quality. Those of inferior quality contain, besides, a certain quantity of wax and acid: the honeys of Britanny contain even an animal secretion (couvain) to which they owe their putrescent quality. A slight washing with

The above compounds appear to be formed by the union of more simple compounds, as sugar, of carbon and water; urea, of carburetted hydrogen and nitrous oxide; lithic acid, of cyanogen and water, &c., whence it is inferred that their artificial formation falls within the limits of chemical operations.

SUGAR, ACID OF. See ACID, CHEMISTRY, and OXALIC ACID.

SUGAR CANDY is the true essence of the cane formed into large crystals by a slow process. When the syrup is well clarified it is boiled a little, but not so much as is done for the proof mentioned in the process for making common sugar. It is then placed in old moulds, having their lower ends stopped with linen, and crossed at little distances with small twigs to retain the sugar as it crystallises. The moulds are then laid in a cool place. In proportion as the syrup cools, crystals are formed. In about nine or ten days the moulds are carried to the stove and placed in a pot; but the linen is not removed entirely, so that the syrup falls down slowly in drops. When the syrup has dropped away, and the crystals of the sugar-candy are become dry, the moulds are taken from the stove and broken in pieces to disengage the sugar, which adheres strongly to the sides of the moulds. If the syrup has been colored with cochineal the crystals take a slight tint of red; if indigo has been mixed they assume a bluish color. If it be desired to have the candy perfumed, the essence of flowers or amber may be dropped into the moulds along with the syrup.

SUGAR CANE, in botany. See SACCHARUM and SUGAR.

The SUGAR MAPLE, acer saccharinum of Linnæus (see ACER), as well as the sugar-cane, produces a great quantity of sugar. This tree grows in great numbers in the western counties of all the middle states of the American union. Those which grow in New York and Pennsylvania yield the sugar in a greater quantity than those which grow on the waters of Ohio. These trees are generally found mixed with the beech, hemlock, white and water ash, the cucumber

18.75 100.00 5 43.75 100.00

to

tree, linden, aspen, butter nut, and wild cherry trees. They sometimes appear in groves covering five or six acres in a body, but they are more commonly interspersed with some or all of the forest trees which have been mentioned. From thirty to fifty trees are generally found upon an acre of ground. They grow only in the richest soils, and frequently in stony ground. Springs of the purest water abound in the neighbourhood. They are, when fully grown, as tall as the white and black oaks, and from two to three feet in diameter. They put forth a beattiful white blossom in spring before they show a single leaf. The color of the blossom distinguishes them from the acer rubrum (see Aceai, or the common maple, which affords a blosso of a red color. The wood of the sugar mape tree is extremely inflammable, and is preferred upon that account by hunters and surveyors for fire-wood. Its small branches are so much inpregnated with sugar as to afford support the cattle, horses, and sheep of the first settlers during the winter, before they are able to cu tivate forage for that purpose. Its ashes afford a great quantity of potash, exceeded by few, or per haps by none, of the trees that grow in the woods of the United States. The tree is supposed to arrive at its full growth in the woods in twenty years. It is not injured by tapping; on the con trary, the oftener it is tapped the more syrup is obtained from it. In this respect it follows a law of animal secretion. A single tree had not only survived but flourished after forty-two tappings in the same number of years The effects of a yearly discharge of sap from the tree, in improving and increasing the sap, are demonstrated from the superior excellence of those trees which have been perforated in a hundred places by a small wood-pecker which feeds upon the sap. The trees, after having been wounded in this way, distil the remains of their juice on the ground, and afterwards acquire a black color. The sap of these trees is much sweeter to the taste than that which is obtained from trees which have not been previously wounded, and it affords more sugar. From twenty-three gal

tons and one quart of sap, procured in twentyfour hours from only two of those dark colored trees. Arthur Noble, esq., of the state of New York, obtained four pounds and thirteen ounces of good grained sugar. A tree of an ordinary size yields in a good season from twenty to thirty gallons of sap, from which are made from five to six pounds of sugar. Samuel Lowe, esq., a justice of peace in Montgomery county, in the state of New York, informed Arthur Noble, esq., that he had made twenty pounds and one ounce of sugar between the 14th and 23d of April, in 1789, from a single tree that had been tapped for several successive years before; and that he had once obtained twenty-three gallons in one day from a single tree. But such instances are uncommon. From the influence which culture has upon forest and other trees it has been supposed that, by transplanting the sugar maple-tree into a garden, or by destroying such other trees as shelter it from the rays of the sun, the quantity of the sap might be increased, and its quality much improved. A farmer in Northampton county, in Pennsylvania, planted a number of these trees above thirty years ago in his meadow, from three gallons of the sap of which he obtained every year a pound of sugar. The sap distils from the wood of the tree. Trees which have been cut down in winter, for the support of the domestic animals of the new settlers, yield a considerable quantity of sap as soon as their trunks and limbs feel the rays of the sun in the spring. It is in consequence of the sap of these trees being equally diffused through every part of them that they live three years after they are girded, that is, after a circular incision is made through the bark into the substance of the tree for the purpose of destroying it. It is remarkable that grass thrives better under this tree in a meadow than in situations exposed to the constant action of the sun. The season for tapping the trees is in February, March, and April, according to the weather which occurs. Warm days and frosty nights are most favorable to a plentiful discharge of sap. The quantity obtained in a day from a tree is from five gallons to a pint, according to the greater or less heat of the air. There is always a suspension of the discharge of sap in the night if a frost succeed a warm day. The perforation in the tree is made with an axe or an augur. The latter is preferred from experience of its advantages. The augur is introduced about three quarters of an inch, and in an ascending direction (that the sap may not be frozen in a slow current in the mornings or evenings), and is afterwards deepened gradually to the extent of two inches. A spout is introduced about half an inch into the hole made by this augur, and projects from three to twelve inches from the tree. The spout is generally made of the sumach or elder, which usually grows near the sugar trees. The tree is first tapped on the south side; when the discharge of its sap begins to lessen, an opening is made on the north side, from which an increased discharge takes place. The sap flows from four to six weeks, according to the temperature of the weather. Troughs large enough to contain three or four gallons made of white pine, or white ash, or of

dried water ash, aspen, linden, poplar, or common maple, are placed under the spout to receive the sap, which is carried every day to a large receiver, made of either of the trees before mentioned. From this receiver it is conveyed, after being strained, to the boiler. There are three modes of reducing the sap to sugar; by evaporation, by freezing, and by boiling; of which the latter is most general, as being the most expeditious. The profit of the maple tree is not confined to its sugar. It affords most agreeable melasses, and an excellent vinegar. The sap which is suitable for these purposes is obtained after the sap which affords the sugar has ceased to flow, so that the manufactories of these different products of the maple tree, by succeeding, do not interfere with each other. The melasses may be made to compose the basis of a pleasant summer beer. The sap of the maple is also capable of affording a spirit.

Dr. Rush, in the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. iii., has given an account, at length, of the sugar maple tree, of which the following is a short abstract :-The acer saccharinum of Linnæus, or sugar maple tree, grows in great quantities in the western counties of all the middle States of the American Union. It is as tall as the oak, and from two to three feet in diameter; puts forth a white blossom in the spring, before any appearance of leaves; its small branches afford sustenance for cattle, and its ashes afford a large quantity of excellent potash. Twenty years are required for it to attain its full growth. Tapping does not injure it, but on the contrary, it affords more syrup, and of a better quality the oftener it is tapped. A single tree has not only survived, but flourished after tapping, for forty years. Five or six pounds of sugar are usually afforded by the sap of one tree; though there are instances of the quantity exceeding twenty pounds. The sugar is separated from the sap either by freezing, by spontaneous evaporation, or by boiling. The latter method is the most used.

Dr. Rush describes the process; which is simple, and practised without any difficulty by the farmers. From frequent trials of this sugar, it does not appear to be in any respect inferior to that of the West Indies. It is prepared at a time of the year when neither insect, nor the pollen of plants, exists to vitiate it, as is the case with common sugar. From calculations grounded on facts, it is ascertained that America is now capable of producing a surplus of one-eighth more than its own consumption; that is, on the whole, about 135,000,000 lbs. ; which, in the country, may be valued at fifteen pounds weight for one dollar. The Indians likewise extract sugar from the pith of the bamboo. The beet has lately been much cultivated in Germany for the purpose of extracting sugar from its root. For this the roots are taken up in autumn, washed clean, wiped, sliced lengthwise, strung on threads, and hung up to dry. From these the sugar is extracted by maceration in a small quantity of water; drawing off this upon fresh roots, and adding fresh water to the first roots, which is again to be employed in the same way, so as to get out all their sugar, and saturate

the water as much as possible with it. This water is to be strained and boiled down for the sugar. Some merely express the juice from the fresh roots, and boil this down; others boil the roots; but the sugar extracted in either of these ways is not equal in quality to the first.

Professor Lampadius obtained from 110 lbs. of the roots four pounds of well-grained white powder sugar; and the residuums afforded seven pints of a spirit resembling rum. Achard says that about a ton of roots produced him 100 lbs. of raw sugar, which gave fifty-five pounds of refined sugar, and twenty-five pounds of treacle. But the sugar which is so universally used is afforded by the sugar-cane (arundo saccharifera) which is raised in our colonies. When this plant is ripe it is cut down, and crushed by passing it between iron cylinders placed perpendicularly and moved by water or animal strength. The juice which flows out by this strong pressure is received in a shallow trough placed beneath the cylinder. The juice is called in the French sugar colonies vesou; and the cane, after having undergone this pressure, is called begasse. The juice is more or less saccharine, according to the nature of the soil on which the cane has grown, and the weather that has predominated during its growth. It is aqueous, when the soil or the weather has been humid; and in contrary circumstances it is thick and glutinous.

The juice of the cane is conveyed into boilers, where it is boiled with wood ashes and lime. It is subjected to the same operation in three several boilers, care being taken to remove the scum as it rises. In this state it is called syrup; and is again boiled with lime and alum till it is sufficiently concentrated, when it is poured into a vessel called the cooler. In this vessel it is agitated with wooden stirrers, which break the crust as it forms on the surface. It is afterward poured into casks, to accelerate its cooling; and while it is still warm, it is conveyed into barrels standing upright over a cistern, and pierced through their bottom with several holes stopped with cane. The syrup which is not condensed filters through these canes into the cistern beneath; and leaves the sugar in the state called coarse sugar, or muscovado. This sugar is yellow and fat, and is purified in the islands in the following manner:-The syrup is boiled, and poured into conical earthen vessels, having a small perforation at the apex, which is kept closed. Each cone, reversed on its apex, is supported in another earthen vessel. The syrup is stirred together, and then left to crystallise. At the end of fifteen or sixteen hours, the hole in the point of each cone, is opened, that the impure syrup may run out. The base of these sugar-loaves is then taken out, and white pulverised sugar substituted in its stead, which being well pressed down, the whole is covered with clay, moistened with water. This water filters through the mass, carrying the syrup with it which was mixed with the sugar, but which by this management flows into a pot substituted in the place of the first. This second fluid is called fine syrup. Care is taken to moisten and keep the clay in a proper degree of softness as it becomes dry. The sugar loaves are afterward taken out and

dried in a stove for eight or ten days; after which they are pulverised, packed, and exported Europe, where they are still farther purified.

SUGAT, a town of Asia Minor, in the pa chalic of Bursa, occupying the site of the ancient Tottarium. The houses are built of wood and mud, in general two stories high, with projecting verandahs, and roofed with a red tile, which almost always admits the rain. It is remarkable for the tomb of Ali Osman.

SUGER (abbé), a French priest and prime minister of France, who flourished in the eleven century, and died in 1152. His reputation w so great that after his death it was thought sucient to inscribe on his tomb, Cy git l'abbé Sugar Here lies the abbé Sugar. Of consequence ve know no more of him. David Hume was influenced by a similar piece of vanity when ordered his name, and no more, to be inscribed on his monument.

SUGGEST, v. a.. SUGGEST ER, n. s. SUGGESTION.

Fr. suggerer; Lat. stiggero, suggestum. To hiri; Sintimate; insinuate good

or ill; inform secretly; seduce (these last two ar obsolete): the noun substantives corresponding. It allayeth all base and earthly cogitations, b nisheth and driveth away those evil secret suggesties which our invisible enemy is always apt to minim.

He was a man

Of an unbounded stomach, ever ranking

Himself with princes; one that by suggestion
Tied all the kingdom. Shakspeare. Henry VIIL
When devils will their blackest sins put on,
They do suggest at first with heavenly shows.

Shakaptare.

Search for some thoughts thy own suggesting mind, And others dictated by heavenly power Shall rise spontaneous.

Pope's Odyssey. SUG GILATE, v. a. Lat. suggillo. To beat black and blue; to make livid by a bruise. The head of the os humeri was bruised, and remained suggilated long after. Wiseman's Surgery.

SUGULMESSA, SIGILMESSA, or, according to Jackson, SEGIN MESSA, a district of Africa to the south-west of Morocco, beyond the Atlas. It forms part of that immense plain which intervenes between Barbary and the Great Sahara. Aridity is the prevailing character of the soil, though it still retains moisture sufficient for the production of dates. At an early period Sugulmessa was a city of importance, being the rendezvous of the caravans from Morocco to Soudan; but since these have been in the habit of passing by Akka and Jaffa, Sugulmessa has lost its importance: the district is now included in the kingdom of Tafilet.