geologists, we have here a daily example of the operation of some powerful agent which belongs to geological dynamics; and which, for the purposes of the geological theorist, does the work of the earthquake upon a very large scale, without assuming its terrors. [2nd Ed.] [Examples of changes of level of large districts occurring at periods when the country has been agitated by earthquakes are well ascertained, as the rising of the coast of Chili in 1822, and the subsidence of the district of Cutch, in the delta of the Indus, in 1819. (Lyell, B. II. c. xv.) But the cases of more slow and tranquil movement seem also to be established. The gradual secular rise of the shore of the Baltic, mentioned in the text, has been confirmed by subsequent investigation. It appears that the rate of elevation increases from Stockholm, where it is only a few inches in a century, to the North Cape, where it is several feet. It appears also that several other regions are in a like state of secular change. The coast of Greenland is sinking. (Lyell, B. II. c. xviii.) And the existence of “raised beaches" along various coasts is now generally accepted among geologists. Such beaches, anciently forming the margin of the sea, but now far above it, exist in many places; for instance, along a great part of the Scotch coast; and among the raised beaches of that country we ought probably, with Mr. Darwin, to include the "parallel roads" of Glenroy, the subject, in former days, of so much controversy among geologists and antiquaries. Connected with the secular rise and fall of large portions of the earth's surface, another agency which plays an important part in Geological dynamics has been the subject of some bold yet singularly persuasive speculations by Mr. Darwin. I speak of the formation of Coral, and Coral Reefs. He says that the coral-building animal works only at small and definite distances below the surface. How then are we to account for the vast number of coral islands, rings, and reefs, which are scattered over the Pacific and Indian Oceans! Can we suppose that there are so many mountains, craters, and ridges, all exactly within a few feet of the same height through this vast portion of the globe's surface? This is incredible. How then are we to explain the facts? Mr. Darwin replies, that if we suppose the land to subside slowly beneath the sea, and at the same time suppose the coralline zoophytes to go on building, so that their structure constantly rises nearly to the surface of the water, we shall have the facts explained. A submerged island will produce a ring; a long coast, a barrier reef; and so on. Mr. Darwin also notes other phenomena, as elevated beds of coral, which, occurring in other places, indicate a recent rising of the land; and on such grounds as these he divides the surface of those parts of the ocean into regions of elevation and of depression. The labors of coralline zoophytes, as thus observed, form masses of coral, such as are found fossilized in the strata of the earth. But our knowledge of the laws of life which have probably affected the distribution of marine remains in strata, has received other very striking accessions by the labors of Prof. Edward Forbes in observing the marine animals of the Egean Sea. He found that, even in their living state, the mollusks and zoophytes are already distributed into strata. Dividing the depth into eight regions, from 2 to 230 fathoms, he found that each region had its peculiar inhabitants, which disappeared speedily either in ascending or in descending. The zero of animal life appeared to occur at about 300 fathoms. This curious result bears in various ways upon geology. Mr. Forbes himself has given an example of the mode in which it may be applied, by determining the depth at which the submarine eruption took place which produced the volcanic isle of Neokaimeni in 1707. By an examination of the fossils embedded in the pumice, he showed that it came from the fourth region. 5 To the modes in which organized beings operate in producing the materials of the earth, we must add those pointed out by the extraordinary microscopic discoveries of Professor Ehrenberg. It appears that whole beds of earthy matter consist of the cases of certain infusoria, the remains of these creatures being accumulated in numbers which it confounds our thoughts to contemplate.] Speculations concerning the causes of volcanoes and earthquakes, and of the rising and sinking of land, are a highly important portion of this science, at least as far as the calculation of the possible results of definite causes is concerned. But the various hypotheses which have been propounded on this subject can hardly be considered as sufficiently matured for such calculation. A mass of matter in a state of igneous fusion, extending to the centre of the earth, even if we make such an hypothesis, requires some additional cause to produce eruption. The supposition that this fire may be produced by intense chemical action between combining elements, requires further, not only some agency to bring together such elements, but some reason why British Assoc. Reports, 1843, p. 177. they should be originally separate. And if any other causes have. been suggested, as electricity or magnetism, this has been done so vaguely as to elude all possibility of rigorous deduction from the hypothesis. The doctrine of a Central Heat, however, has occupied so considerable a place in theoretical geology, that it ought undoubtedly to form an article in geological dynamics. Sect. 4.-The Doctrine of Central Heat. THE early geological theorists who, like Leibnitz and Buffon, assumed that the earth was originally a mass in a state of igneous fusion, naturally went on to deduce from this hypothesis, that the crust consolidated and cooled before the interior, and that there might still remain a central heat, capable of producing many important effects. But it is in more recent times that we have measures of such effects, and calculations which we can compare with measures. It was found, as we have said, that in descending below the surface of the earth, the temperature of its materials increased. Now it followed from Fourier's mathematical investigations of the distribution of heat in the earth, that if there be no primitive heat (chaleur d'origine), the temperature, when we descend below the crust, will be constant in each vertical line. Hence an observed increase of temperature in descending, appeared to point out a central heat resulting from some cause now no longer in action. The doctrine of a central heat has usually been combined with the supposition of a central igneous fluidity; for the heat in the neighborhood of the centre must be very intense, according to any law of its increase in descending which is consistent with known principles. But to this central fluidity it has been objected that such a fluid must be in constant circulation by the cooling of its exterior. Mr. Daniell found this to be the case in all fused metals. It has also been objected that there must be, in such a central fluid, tides produced by the moon and sun; but this inference would require several additional suppositions. and calculations to give it a precise form. Again, the supposition of a central heat of the earth, considered as the effect of a more ancient state of its mass, appeared to indicate that its cooling must still be going on. But if this were so, the earth might contract, as most bodies do when they cool; and this contraction might lead to mechanical results, as the shortening of the day. Laplace satisfied himself, by reference to ancient astronomical records, that no such alteration in the length of the day had taken place, even to the amount of one two-hundredth of a second; and thus, there was here no confirmation of the hypothesis of a primitive heat of the earth. Though we find no evidence of the secular contraction of the earth in the observations with which astronomy deals, there are some geological facts which at first appear to point to the reality of a refrigeration within geological periods; as the existence of the remains of plants and shells of tropical climates, in the strata of countries which are now near to or within the frigid zones. These facts, however, have given rise to theories of the changes of climate, which we must consider separately. 7 But we may notice, as connected with the doctrine of central heat, the manner in which this hypothesis has been applied to explain volcanic and geological phenomena. It does not enter into my plan, to consider explanations in which this central heat is supposed to give rise to an expansive force, without any distinct reference to known physical laws. But we may notice, as more likely to become useful materials of the science now before us, such speculations as those of Mr. Babbage; in which he combines the doctrine of central heat with other physical laws; as, that solid rocks expand by being heated, but that clay contracts; that different rocks and strata conduct heat differently; that the earth radiates heat differently, or at different parts of its surface, according as it is covered with forests, with mountains, with deserts, or with water. These principles, applied to large masses, such as those which constitute the crust of the earth, might give rise to changes as great as any which geology discloses. For example: when the bed of a sea is covered by a thick deposit of new matter worn from the shores, the strata below the bed, being protected by a bad conductor of heat, will be heated, and, being heated, may be expanded; or, as Sir J. Herschel has observed, may produce explosion by the conversion of their moisture into steam. Such speculations, when founded on real data and sound calculations, may hereafter be of material use in geology. The doctrine of central heat and fluidity has been rejected by some eminent philosophers. Mr. Lyell's reasons for this rejection belong Scrope On Volcanoes, p. 192. ▾ On the Temple of Serapis, 1834. ii., quoted in Conyb. and Ph. p. xv. Expansion of Stone. See also Journal of the Royal Inst. vol. rather to Theoretical Geology; but I may here notice M. Poissons' opinion. He does not assent to the conclusion of Fourier, that since the temperature increases in descending, there must be some primitive central heat. On the contrary, he considers that such an increase may arise from this;-that the earth, at some former period, passed (by the motion of the solar system in the universe,) though a portion of space which was warmer than the space in which it now revolves (by reason, it may be, of the heat of other stars to which it was then nearer). He supposes that, since such a period, the surface has cooled down by the influence of the surrounding circumstances; while the interior, for a certain unknown depth, retains the trace of the former elevation of temperature. But this assumption is not likely to expel the belief in the terrestrial origin of the subterraneous heat. For the supposition of such an inequality in the temperature of the different regions in which the solar system is placed at different times, is altogether arbitrary; and, if pushed to the amount to which it must be carried, in order to account for the phenomenon, is highly improbable. The doctrine of central heat, on the other hand, (which need not be conceived as implying the universal fluidity of the mass,) is not only naturally suggested by the subterraneous increase of temperatures, but explains the spheroidal figure of the earth; and falls in with almost any theory which can be devised, of volcanoes, earthquakes, and great geological changes. 8 Sect. 5.-Problems respecting Elevations and Crystalline Forces. OTHER problems respecting the forces by which great masses of the earth's crust have been displaced, have also been solved by various mathematicians. It has been maintained by Von Buch that there occur, in various places, craters of elevation; that is, mountain-masses resembling the craters of volcanoes, but really produced by an expansive force from below, bursting an aperture through horizontal strata, * For this hypothesis would make it necessary to suppose that the earth has, at some former period, derived from some other star or stars more heat than she now derives from the sun. But this would imply, as highly probable, that at some period some other star or stars must have produced also a mechanical effect upon the solar system, greater than the effect of the sun. Now such a past operation of forces, fitted to obliterate all order and symmetry, is quite inconsistent with the simple, regular, and symmetrical relation which the whole solar system, as far as Uranus, bears to the present central body. |