CARTHAGE. the Romans. Massinissa, king of Numidia, skilfully availed himself of dissensions which arose within C. between the nobles and the people, to advance his own interests at the expense of the Carthaginians; and as they (151 B. C.) opposed him, and drove his adherents out of the city, the Romans seized the opportunity for a new declaration of war, 149 B. C., on the ground that the treaty was broken; and after a siege of two years, C. was taken by Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus, 146 B. C. For six days the combat was maintained in the streets of the city, and for seventeen days the work of its destruction by fire was carried on by the conquerors. The country became a Roman province. C. Gracchus sent out 6000 colonists to found a new city on the site of Carthage. It was called Junonia, but it did not prosper. Augustus, carrying out the intention of his great uncle, restored the city, and the new C. had become, in the second and third centuries of the Christian era, one of the finest cities of the Roman empire. In 439 A. D., Genseric made it the capital of the Vandal kingdom; Belisarius conquered it in 533, and named it Justiniana; the Arabs under Hassan utterly destroyed it in 647 A. D.; and now only two or three small hamlets and a few ruins mark its site. population was partly of Phoenician, partly of Libyan besides an immense sum of money, and they were descent. The territory which the Carthaginians taken bound not to make war without permission of acquired by the subjugation of the Libyan tribes, and by the ultimate annexation of other older Phoenician colonies, with which they had at first been simply in alliance, such as Utica, Hadrumetum, Tunis, Hippo, the two Leptes, &c., extended in the middle of the 5th c. B. C. southward to Lake Triton, eastward to the Great Syrtis, and westward to Hipporegius (now Bona). The maritime power of the Carthaginians enabled them also to extend their settlements and conquests to the other coasts of the Mediterranean. In the 6th c. B. C., they were masters of Sardinia, and had begun to contend for the possession of Sicily. Hanno (q. v.) founded colonies on the west coast of Africa beyond the Straits of Gibraltar, and Himilco visited the coasts of Spain and Gaul. The relations of C. to foreign states in earlier times are not very clear. The first treaty with the Romans was concluded in 509 B. C.; the second, in 348 B. C.; the third, in 306 B. C. The connected history of C. begins with the 5th c. B. C., a period of wars between the Carthaginians and the Greeks in Sicily. The Carthaginian army under Hamilcar was destroyed by Gelon at Himera in 480 B. C. It was not till 410 B. C. that the war began which ended in the conquest by the Carthaginians of some parts of the island. Dionysius the Elder, or rather the We have not very satisfactory accounts of the conpestilence working for him, put a stop to their stitution of the Carthaginian state. It is certain that conquests, but did not succeed in expelling them. it was oligarchical, and that the chief power was in War raged almost constantly between Dionysius the hands of the great families (gentes), from whose and the Carthaginians. The more feeble reign of members the senate, amounting to 300, was chosen. Dionysius the Younger afforded them an oppor- This senate appointed, as it were, a more select tunity of extending their conquests, yet they were council of 30, and sometimes a still smaller one of frequently repelled and defeated by the Sicilian only 10, at the head of whom were two suffetes (probGreeks; and during 311-301 B. C., Agathocles ably the same as the Hebrew shofetem, ‘judges'), carried the war into Africa, and attacked C. itself. but it is not certain what relation these bore to one After his death, the Carthaginians again increased another, or how their power was apportioned between their dominions in Sicily; and although Pyrrhus them. We can gather dimly, from various scattered contended successfully against them at first, he statements, that the Carthaginian oligarchy, while left that island entirely in 275 B. C. The sub- despising the multitude, was itself split up into jugation of the south of Italy by the Romans, factions, and torn by family jealousies. Corruption brought the two great and conquering nations into largely prevailed; and it would perhaps have been collision, and the First Punic war arose, 264 B. C., better for the country if the power had been in and after a great naval victory of the Romans, the hands of a popular despot than of a band of terminated in 241, the Carthaginians giving up insolent and tyrannical nobles. Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, and paying to the Romans a large sum of money. Soon after this, a mutiny of the hired troops of C., combined with an insurrection of the Libyan tribes, the ancient inhabitants of the country, who were kept down by the arbitrary rule of the Carthaginian colonists, threatened the entire ruin of the city. Hamilcar brought that bloody war, however, to a successful termination, and led an army to Spain, where he, and after him Hasdrubal, obtained great successes. Here was founded New C., now Cartagena (q. v.). After Hasdrubal's death, 221 B. C., Hannibal (q. v.), burning to revenge the defeat which his native city had sustained from the Romans, broke the treaty with them, and took Saguntum, 219 B. C. Thus began the Second Punic war, in which Hannibal pursued his career of conquest from Spain, through Gaul, and across the Alps into Italy itself, defeated the Romans with terrible slaughter in various battles, and, by that of Cannæ in particular, brought Rome to the very brink of ruin. Yet the war terminated in the total defeat of the Carthaginians by Publius Cornelius Scipio, who overthrew their power in Spain, and was victorious over Hannibal in the final and decisive battle of Zama, in Africa, in October 202. A peace was then concluded, in which the Carthaginians were limited to their African territories; but most of their ships of war and war-elephants were taken from them, | The The Carthaginian army was raised from the conscription of the subjugated Libyans, from the hired Numidians, and from slaves. In the time of Agathocles, the city sent forth 40,000 heavy armed infantry, 1000 cavalry, and 2000 war-chariots, but the state could easily raise 100,000 troops. fleet in the First Punic war consisted of 350 ships, carrying 150,000 men. How C. contrived to raise revenues sufficient to cover the enormous expense her military and naval organisation involved, is not very clear. It was, in all likelihood, derived from tribute imposed on subject Libyan or Numidian races, in great part from mines in Spain, and from import duties derived from her maritime and inland trade, which was prodigiously great. Her merchantmen visited every coast and island of the Mediterranean, and even ventured as far as the Azores, Britain, the Baltic, &c.; while her caravans penetrated through Sahara to the gold-producing districts of the Niger, and through the Libyan Desert to the lands along the Nile. The religion of the Carthaginians appears to have been substantially the same as that of the Phoenicians-a worship of the stars and of fire. Moloch was the chief deity, and to him children and captives were sacrificed. The highest natural manifestation of this deity was the Sun. Besides Moloch, the Carthaginians worshipped the Tyrian Hercules; Astarte, the goddess of the elements; CARTHAGE-CARTILAGINOUS FISHES. Esmun, the god of the celestial vault; and a variety of heroes, heroines, and genii or spirits, such as the Genius of Death, Hamilcar (who fell at the battle of Himera), Dido, the brothers Philani, &c., as well as a few of the lesser Greek divinities, of whom a knowledge had been obtained in Sicily. It does not appear that there was a distinct sacerdotal order in Carthage. Probably religious ceremonies were performed by the dignitaries of the state, but our knowledge on this interesting point is too meagre to permit of our arriving at any very definite conclusion. CARTHAGE, CAPE, a headland of North Africa, jutting out into the Mediterranean, in lat. 36° 52′ N., long. 10° 22′ E. Traces of the ancient city of Carthage (q. v.) are found on it to the north of the Tunis lagoon. CARTHAGE'NA, capital of the province of the same name in New Granada. It stands on the Caribbean Sea, a little to the south-west of the mouth of the Magdalena, in lat. 10° 26' N., and long. 77° 54' W., having the best harbour on the coast, with a naval arsenal and strong fortifications. Its popu lation is estimated at 10,000, not more than onetenth being white. The temperature ranges from 80 to 86 F.-the air, however, being dry and healthy. In the history of Spanish America, and more especially in that of the war of independence, the city occupies a prominent place. CARTHAGENA BARK. See CINCHONA. CARTHAGO, a term of various application in Central America.-1. An almost landlocked bay or lagoon of the Caribbean Sea near the northwest extremity of the Mosquito shore.-2. A river entering the same from the south-south-west, about lat. 15° N., and long. 84° W.-3. A river of Costa Rica, flowing into the Gulf of Nicoya, an inlet of the Pacific, near lat. 9° 30′ N., and long. 84° 30′ W.-4. A city, or rather the ruins of one, on the same, about 60 miles from its mouth. Down to 1841, it was the capital of Costa Rica; but being in that year all but destroyed by an earthquake, it was supplanted by San José, previously its superior in wealth and importance, about 15 miles to the west-north-west of itself. The volcano of its own name, doubtless connected with its overthrow, is valuable as a landmark to mariners. CA'RTHAMINE, or CARTHAMEINE. and coverlet of coarse woollen stuff, with the means CARTILAGE is a firm elastic substance, of a dye so called is obtained by a chemical process from safflower (q. v.), (Carthamus tinctorius), in crystals which are insoluble in water, but slightly soluble in alcohol and ether. When newly precipitated, C. immediately and permanently attaches itself to cotton or silk, but not to wool, requiring no mordant, dyeing the fabric a fine red, which is changed to yellow on the addition of alkalies, and may be returned to red again on being treated with acids. CARTHU'SIANS, a monastic order which owes its origin to St Bruno, who retired in 1086 with six companions to the solitude of La Chartreuse, near Grenoble, where they built hermitages, wore rude garments, and lived upon vegetables and coarse bread. From this place the order took its name. After Bruno's death it increased, and in 1134 received written rules from its fifth prior, Guigo, called the Statuta Guigonis or Consuetudines Cartusia, but the rules have been often changed. In 1170, the order received papal approbation, and thereafter extended rapidly. The C. made their appearance in England in 1180-1181. The name which their monasteries obtained there (Chartreuse-houses) was corrupted into charterhouses. Each Carthusian monk is required to dwell in a separate cell, with only a bed of straw, a pillow, A brief notice in the article CELLS, and a reference to its chemical and GLUTEN. CARTILAGINOUS FISHES are those fishes which have a skeleton destitute of bony fibres. In some of these fishes, the skeleton is merely rudimentary, so that they seem to form an intermediate link between vertebrate and invertebrate animals. In the lancelets (q. v.) (Amphioxus) it consists of nothing more than a slender, transparent, flexible dorsal column; in Myrine also it is a soft flexible tube, without appearance of vertebræ or of ribs ; in the lampreys, the dorsal column is still a mere cylinder of cartilage, without any notable division into segments; whilst even in the sturgeon, the centre of the backbone is a continuous gelatinous cord, and in the sharks the vertebræ are formed of hollow cones, meeting at their apices in the middle, and having their cups filled with the remains of the gelatinous cord, an arrangement from which result great elasticity and flexibility. In many instances, even in the higher C. F., several vertebræ are united CARTILAGINOUS FISHES-CARTOON. in a single piece; in all of them the skull is formed of a single piece without sutures, although the general form agrees with that of the skull of other fishes, and the same parts or regions may be recognised. The calcareous matter present in the skeleton is always deposited in a granular manner, giving a characteristic dotted appearance; but even in the skull of the Basking Shark, one of the most highly organised, the earthy matter has been found to form little more than 3 per cent. of the whole substance; in the skeleton of the lamprey, it is only 1 per cent. In other parts of their organisation, C. F. differ from each other very widely; some of them possessing the organs of the senses in as great perfection as any fishes whatever, whilst in others these organs are very imperfectly developed. Linnæus placed the C. F. along with Batrachian reptiles in his class Amphilia. By the general consent of naturalists, however, they are placed in the class of Fishes. Cuvier, referring to the very different degrees of organisation which they exhibit, says 'they form a series ranging parallel to the bony fishes, just as the marsupial mammalia range parallel with the other ordinary mammalia.' Owen and others, admitting the justice of this view, have, however, pointed out in the C. F. generally, characters corresponding with those of the osseous fishes in their embryotic state, and with the permanent or mature conditions which prevailed among the fishes of some of the older geological periods. One remarkable characteristic even of the higher groups of C. F. sturgeons, sharks, rays, &c.—is the heterocercal tail, the vertebral column being prolonged into the upper portion of the caudal fin, and the lower one given off on its under side, as in the fossil fishes generally of the Old Red Sandstone and other oldest fish-producing rocks.-Cuvier divided C. F., or Chondropterygii (Gr. cartilage-finned), into three orders: Sturiones (Sturgeon, Chimæra, &c.), having the gills free, and gillopenings with a lid, like the osseous fishes; Selachii (Sharks and Rays), having the gills fixed, and consisting of folds of membrane on a plane surface, with numerous gill-openings, the jaws movable as in other fishes generally; and Cyclostomi (Lampreys, &c.), also having fixed gills and numerous gill-openings, the mouth adapted for sucking. Müller and Owen, however, separate the Cyclostomi of Cuvier from the other C. F., on account of important anatomical differences, particularly in the structure of the heart, which in the Cyclostomi wants the bulbus arteriosus, or thick muscular swelling of the commencement of the arterial system close to the ventricle; whilst this, which may, in fact, be considered as a third chamber of the heart, is present in the Sturiones and Selachii, and within it are three or more longitudinal rows of valves; characters derived from the vascular system being deemed by these great naturalists of the highest value in determining the arrangement of the class of fishes. The lancelets occupy a place by themselves, from their absolutely wanting a heart, and having the circulation carried on by the muscularity of the entire vascular system. CARTOON (Ital. cartone, pasteboard; from Lat. charta, paper). In the fine arts, C. is a design on strong paper, of the full size of a work to be afterwards executed either in fresco, oil colour, or tapestry. The object of the artist in preparing a C. is, that he may adjust the drawing and composition of his subject in circumstances in which alterations can be effected with facility, before proceeding to the execution of the work itself. Cartoons are generally composed of a number of sheets of stout paper or pasteboard, pasted together at the edges, and stretched on a frame. The surface is sometimes primed, or washed with a ground-colour; but more frequently this process is dispensed with. The drawing is made either in chalks or in distemper (q. v.), in which latter case the C. itself has very much the appearance of a fresco. Frequently only two colours are used, merely for the purpose of producing light and shade, in which case the C. is said to be in chiaro oscuro. The C., when finished, is transferred to the canvas or plaster on which the work is to be executed, either by tracing with a hard point, or by pricking with pins, charcoal in both cases being used. Sometimes lines are simply drawn across it, or, if it is wished to preserve it from injury, threads are stretched across it from pins placed at the required distances along the edges. In fresco painting (q. v.), the plaster on which the work is executed must be kept wet, in order that it may absorb the colour, and consequently only a small portion can be executed at a time. For this reason, the C. must be traced in small compartments of the size that the artist can finish without stopping. It is here, consequently, above all, that the necessity for the previous execution of a C. is greatest, as it would be impossible to sketch the whole design on the plaster in the first instance. But the great masters used such studies in chiaro oscuro as guides to them in almost all their more extensive works, and many of these monuments of their care, as well as of their genius, have been preserved. We have cartoons of Andrea Mantegna, Domenichino, the Caracci, &c.; but the finest specimens of cartoons in existence are those of Raphael at Hampton Court. These marvellous conceptions were sent to Flanders in the reign of Leo X., in order that they might be copied in tapestry in two sets, one of which was designed for the pope, the other for a present by the pope to Henry VIII. of England. The tapestries, which are very inferior to the designs, are still in existence. One set is in Rome, the other was in England till the death of Charles I., when it was purchased by the Spanish ambassador, and carried to Spain. At a recent period it was brought to London and offered for sale, but as no English purchaser was found, it was again carried to the continent. For many years the cartoons, originally twenty-five in number, lay neglected at Brussels, and many of them were destroyed. The seven now at Hampton Court were at length purchased by Rubens for King Charles I. It is an instance of Cromwell's good sense, in a direction in which it was not often exhibited, that at the dispersion of the royal collections, these cartoons were purchased for the nation by his special command. So low was the artistical taste of the time, however, that whilst the 'Triumph of Julius Cæsar,' by Andrea Mantegna, still at Hampton Court, was valued at £2000, the cartoons of Raphael were set down at £300! In Charles II.'s time, these remarkable works were again consigned to oblivion. An attempt was made to have them copied in tapestry, by which they were seriously injured. William III., strangely enough, followed in Cromwell's footsteps in appreciating what Charles II. had neglected. He had the cartoons restored, and built a gallery for them at Hampton Court, where, with the exception of a visit to Windsor in George III.'s time, they have since sojourned. The following are the subjects represented: 1. Paul Preaching at Athens; 2. The Death of Ananias; 3. Elymas, the Sorcerer, struck with Blindness; 4. Christ Delivering the Keys to Peter; 5. The Sacrifice at Lystra; 6. The Apostles Healing the Sick at the 'Beautiful Gate' of the Temple; 7. The Miraculous Draught of Fishes. Our space and our design equally preclude us from attempting any statement of the merits of these exquisite composi tions. Several of the lost cartoons are partially transmitted to us by engravings, some of which were executed from the tapestries; others, it is believed, CARTOUCH-CARTWRIGHT. from the originals. The subjects of these are-which have since passed, it has often been much 1. The Adoration of the Kings; 2. Christ appearing higher. to Mary Magdalene; 3. The Disciples at Emmaus; The chief cartridges used for shot guns and sport4. The Murder of the Innocents; 5. The Ascension. ing purposes, are the common wire cartridges, and These were engraved, along with the others, by the various breech-loading cartridges. The wire Somereau, a French engraver, in 4to. Other cartoons cartridges contain only shot packed in a case, the of Raphael exist-one the property of the Duke of interstices being filled with bone-dust. They are of Buccleuch, and two in the possession of the king of three kinds: the first (Universal C.) having a plain Sardinia, which are said to have belonged to the set paper-covering; the second (Royal C.) is, in addisent to Flanders. There is also a portion of one in tion, surrounded by a light wire net-work; and the the National Gallery in London, but it is now third (Green C.) has a stronger wire net-work painted over with oil colour. The best engravings around it. The object of these cartridges (espeof the cartoons at Hampton Court are by Dorigny, cially the Green C., which is propelled furthest) is Audran, and Holloway; but in future it is probable further shooting and harder hitting than can be that they will be more known to the public by attained by loose shot. They are made of various means of photographs, of which Messrs Colnaghi bores and sizes, and containing various quantities, and others have already produced very beautiful to suit all guns. The breech-loader C. is a stout specimens. cylindrical paper-case, some three inches in length. In the annexed longitudinal section of one of the CARTOUCH is a word much used in the French military service, but less frequently in the English. The name was once given to a wooden case contain ing 200 to 300 musket-bullets, and 8 or 10 1-lb balls, fired from a mortar or howitzer in defence of a ditch or intrenchment; but such missiles have been superseded by others. The cartridge-box carried by the soldiers used to be called a C. in England, and still is in France. CARTOUCHE, the name by which the French, and we after them, designate the ovals on which the hieroglyphic characters for the names of Egyptian kings are sculptured. See CAVO-RILIEVO. C. is also used to signify a tablet, either for ornament or to receive an inscription, so.formed as to resemble a sheet of paper or parchment, with the edges and ends rolled up. Cartouches are often seen on tombs. The same term is sometimes applied to modillions, or brackets supporting a cornice. CARTRIDGE is a cylindrical case made to contain either the whole or a part of the materials for discharging from a firearm. Those for ordnance or large guns are chiefly made of serge and flannel, sewn up into the form of a bag, which, supplied with a given weight of powder, is tied round the neck, and strengthened by iron hoops. The weight varies from about 20 lbs. for a 68-pounder, to 6 oz. for a 1-pounder. many kinds of cartridge adapted for breech-loaders, a is a brass pin which is forced by being struck by the hammer of the gun into the percussion-cap b, causing the explosion of the gunpowder in d, and the propulsion of the shot e. c is a brass capsule which closes up the end of the cartridge. CARTRIDGE-PAPER is a light-coloured strong paper, originally manufactured for soldiers' cartridges (q. v.), is extensively used in art, its rough surface being useful for certain kinds of drawing. It is of three kinds-common C., engineers' C., and double engineers' cartridge-paper. The more common kind is also used as a wrapping-paper. CARTWRIGHT, EDMUND, celebrated on account of his invention of the power-loom, was born April 24, 1743, at Marnham, Nottinghamshire. Educated at Oxford, he obtained a living in the English Church, and devoted himself exclusively to his ministerial in 1784, directed his attention to machinery, and in duties and to literature, until a casual conversation, 1785 he exhibited his first power-loom (q. v.) in action, an ingenious though very rude machine; upon which, however, he subsequently effected improvements rendering it almost perfect. Its introduction was vehemently opposed, and a mill fitted up with 500 of his looms was ignorantly and maliciously burned down. C., in 1790, took out a patent for combing wool, and secured patents for various other improvements in connection with manufactures. But his patents yielded him little return, and in 1809, government, in consideration of his invenC. was the author tions, granted him £10,000. Cartridges for small-arms are usually paper tubes containing a leaden ball and a few drachms of powder. The C. paper employed is strong and hard. It is made into a tube by means of a mandrel or former, and thinner paper is also applied at certain parts, in such a way that the powder has two or three thicknesses of paper around it, while the bullet has only one. At Woolwich, a beautiful machine is employed to make the tubes or cases from the pulp itself, instead of from sheets of paper. The paper over the bullet is lubricated with some composition, and a bit of the paper is required to be bitten or twisted off before loading. This apparently trifling matter had something to do with the revolt in India in 1857; for the sepoys professed a horror at the contamination of their lips with (possible) beef or pig fat in the lubricating composition. Blank-cartridges contain of a legendary poem, entitled Arminia and Elvira, powder only; while ball-cartridges contain a bullet and other poetical pieces. He died October 1823.as well as powder. For distinction and safety, CARTWRIGHT, JOHN (born 1740; died 1824), known musket-cartridges are often in white paper, rifle as Major Cartwright, and distinguished for his in green, and blank in purple; and each sort is efforts to obtain parliamentary reform during the wrapped up in paper of the same colour. reign of George III., was elder brother of the above. In reference to army purposes, and to all the various kinds of small-arms employed, the balls used vary from 7 to 34 to the pound, with from 2 to 10 drachms of powder. The number of cartridges kept in store is almost incredibly large. In 1849, it amounted to 80,000,000; and in the busy years CARTWRIGHT, THOMAS, a distinguished puritan divine of the 16th c., was born in Hertfordshire about 1535. He studied at Cambridge, where, in 1570, he was chosen Margaret Divinity professor. His lectures here were too honestly critical of CARUS-CARYATIDES. the polity of the church to be acceptable to the at Ravenna, is of this period (546555). In the chief authorities, who deprived him of his profes- year 803, Charlemagne received two richly carved sorship, and subsequently of his fellowship. C. now doors as a present from Constantinople, but works travelled on the continent, and made the friendship of the same kind were executed at a much earlier of such men as Beza, who, in a letter concerning period. Towards the end of the middle ages, the him, says, 'I think the sun doth not see a more art of carving in wood was brought to a high degree learned man.' On the continent he officiated as of perfection in Germany. Altars were adorned minister at Antwerp, and afterwards at Middle- with carvings of this material, often of large size, burg, to the English residents at these places. On and with numerous figures; in general, the nude his return to England, he again became embroiled portions were carefully and tastefully coloured after with the church and the government, and for his nature, and the draperies gilt. Specimens are to be nonconformity suffered imprisonment several times. seen in the churches at Altenberg, Erfurt, Prague, He was finally released in 1592, and permitted to and in some churches in Pomerania. The finest preach; but the harassing persecutions, and the and most perfect specimens are a series of reliefs confinement to which he had been exposed, had relating to the doctrine of transubstantiation in permanently injured his health. His Admonition the church at Tribsees. Many of the Belgian to the Parliament involved him in a controversy churches also possess very beautiful examples of with Whitgift, afterwards Archbishop of Canter-wood-carving. Michael Wohlgemuth of Nuremberg, bury. See Works of Whitgift, edited by the and after him Veit Stoss, were eminent carvers in Parker Society. He died December 1603. He wood. The wood-carving on the great altar of the wrote A Confutation of the Rhemish Translation, cathedral at Schleswig by Hans Bruggemann belongs Glosses, and Annotations on the New Testament; to the beginning of the 16th century. Many gracea work which, it is said, Queen Elizabeth wanted Beza to undertake, but he declined on the ground that C. was more capable for the task. CARUS, KARL GUST., a German scholar, physiologist, physician, and artist, was born at Leipsic 3d January 1789. He first attracted notice by a series of lectures on comparative anatomy, delivered in his native city about the year 1812. After having superintended, during the war of 1813, the French hospital at Pfaffendorf, he went to Dresden, where he was appointed professor of midwifery in the newly organised medico-chirurgical academy; but resigned his office when elected court-physician and councillor of state. In 1827, he accompanied the Prince of Saxony on his travels through Italy and Switzerland, and on his return, gave his attention seriously to painting, cultivating the art with no little success. His house is the rendezvous of all the most distinguished savans and artists in Dresden. C. has written a vast variety of works, all of which indicate great talent, and some of which are even marked by original and striking views, as, for instance, Uber den Kreislauf des Blutes der Insecten, in which he demonstrates the circulation of the blood in insects. CA'RVEL-BUILT. The difference between the carvel and the clincher methods of arranging the outer planks in ship and boat building is explained under CLINCHER-BUILT. CARVING, a subordinate branch of sculpture, is usually performed on ivory or wood. Ivory was the favourite material for this purpose in the east from an early period. Among the Babylonians, who likewise practised gem-engraving to a great extent, carved heads for staves were executed in vast quantities, as every Babylonian carried a staff and a signet-ring. During the palmy days of Grecian art, ivory was largely employed; the nude portion of the colossal statues of the gods being composed of some solid material overlaid with plates of ivory, while the remaining portions were of plate gold. At a later period, ivory was chiefly employed in small works, usually of a decorative character. During the earliest period, statues of the gods were generally of wood, painted, gilt, or draped with coloured robes, different kinds of wood being appropriated to different divinities. Carvings in ivory form an important branch of early Christian sculpture. Among the most curious of these are the ivory tablets adorned on the outside with low-reliefs, and in the inside coated with wax for the purpose of writing upon. The chair inlaid with ivory that belonged to Archbishop Maximilian in the cathedral ful specimens of wood-carving, on a smaller scale, belonging to this period, are to be seen in museums. Nuremberg was celebrated for its wood-carvings; but only a few of the many works ascribed to him can be assigned with certainty to Albert Dürer. Portrait medallions, usually cut in box, were much in vogue during the early part of the 16th century. The first artist in this line was Hans Schwartz of Augsburg. During the 17th and 18th centuries, we find ivory again extensively employed in crucifixes, crosses, and goblets, with relief representations. The most eminent artist is Franz de Quesnoy. CARY, REV. HENRY FRANCIS, known for his admirable translation of Dante, was born at Birmingham in 1772. At Oxford, where he entered Christ Church as a commoner in 1790, he was early distinguished as a classical scholar, and also for his knowledge of Italian, French, and English literature. In 1805 he translated Dante's Inferno, and in 1814 the whole of the Divina Commedia, a translation remarkable not only for its accuracy but for its expressiveness and force. He afterwards translated Pindar's Odes and Aristophanes's Birds, and wrote a series of memoirs, in continuation of Dr Johnson's Lives of the Poets. For some years he held the appointment of assistant-librarian in the British Museum, and died in 1844. A memoir by his son was published in 1847. CARY, SIR ROBERT, son of Henry Cary, Lord Hunsdon, was born in 1559 or 1560, and rose to eminence in the civil service of Queen Elizabeth. For a number of years, he acted as English warden on the marches. As a courtier, he was present at the death of Elizabeth, 1603, and expeditiously rode intelligence to her successor, James VI. on horseback to Edinburgh to communicate the At the coronation of Charles I., he was elevated to the peerage as Earl of Monmouth. At his death without male issue the earldom became extinct. Sir Robert Cary wrote his Memoirs (Edin. 1808), a work interesting chiefly from notices connected with Border history. CA'RYA. See HICKORY. CARYA'TIDES (pl. of Caryatis, literally, a woman of Carya), a name given to female figures, in Greek architecture, when applied instead of columns to support a roof. The traditional account of the origin of the name is, that the inhabitants of Carya, a city in Arcadia, having joined the Persians after the battle of Thermopyla, the Greeks, after their victory over the Persians, destroyed the town, slew the men, and carried the women into captivity. As male figures representing Persians were used |