are not here included. Nevertheless the table will be useful for occasional reference. The apparent inconsistencies in length and weight are due to the great differences in thickness of metal; and if we were to go beyond the limits of the table, we should find that, during half a century, iron 32-pounders have varied from 63 down to so low as 25 cwt., and 24-pounders from 50 to 33 cwt.; in each case the length and weight varying, while the calibre remained constant. In the above table, the calibre is not always precisely the same for the same weight of ball; as instanced by the 32-pounders, which have 6-2, 6-3, and 64 inches calibre; this is due to the fact that some guns have more windage, or space round the ball, than others.

In England, during the last few years, great expense has been incurred in replacing old C. by others of larger power and calibre; while the French are gradually bringing about a limitation in the number of kinds and sizes, for the sake of simplicity.

This being merely a general or collective notice of all kinds of C. as a class, particulars concerning each kind will be found under such headings as ARMSTRONG GUN, CARRONADE, GUN, HOWITZER, LANCASTER GUN, MORTAR, SHELL GUN, &c.

CANNON, ALLOYS FOR. The material generally used for the manufacture of ordnance is bronze (q. v.), consisting of about 90 parts of copper to about 10 parts of tin. In the casting of small C., such as 8-pounders, the alloy used contains 924 parts of copper to 7 parts of tin; while in the larger C. the tin is increased until the proportion reaches 88 to 12. The presence of the tin increases the hardness of the alloy, but this is obtained at the expense of the tenacity. Great care must be taken to insure the purity of the copper and the tin. If lead is present, the alloy is always more or less soft, and, moreover, liable to fuse after repeated explosions; while the presence of a mere trace of sulphur, arsenic, phosphorus, &c., renders the alloy very brittle. The finest and best kinds of tin are those known as Cornish or as Banca tin, which are almost free from lead, &c. It is customary, in the casting of C., to use up old C. or other bronze implements, so as to form a beginning of the fused metal in the furnace, and then to add little by little the extra amount of copper and tin. This mode of procedure is followed, owing to the difficulty found in getting copper and tin to amalgamate readily, so as to yield an alloy of uniform composition. This point is of great importance in the casting of ordnance, as the metals, when not properly alloyed, are liable to separate during cooling, and yield a C. of variable composition throughout.

CANNON FOUNDING is a very important manufacture, requiring a careful application of metallurgic processes. In 1856, the government invited iron smelters to send specimens of iron to the Royal Gun Factory at Woolwich, to test the capabilities of English metal for the manufacture of good guns. After three years of almost incessant experiments, it was announced, in 1859, that Netherton and Parkhead iron from Staffordshire, Bowling iron from Yorkshire, Blaenavon iron from Monmouthshire, and some other kinds, possess as many good qualities for the purpose as any foreign iron whatever a decision which was as unexpected as it was welcome.

There are now many important questions under discussion concerning the manufacture of large ordnance. Whether cast-iron, or wrought-iron bars bound together with iron-hoops; whether iron, or steel; whether steel outside of iron, or iron outside of steel; whether iron or brass; if cast, whether cast

hollow or solid; whether to be made for breechloading or for muzzle-loading; whether for smooth bore or rifled bore-these are points on which elaborate and costly experiments are being made. Some of the results will be noticed under the particular kinds of ordnance to which they more especially relate.

When the earlier guns, made of hooped bars, were superseded by cast guns, the latter were always cast hollow; but a French founder, in 1749, discovered a mode of boring guns cast solid. Ever since that time, cannon have been more frequently cast solid than hollow, under a belief that the texture of the metal is rendered closer by this arrangement. This, as well as many other questions relating to the manufacture of large ordnance, is at the present day undergoing reconsideration.

British iron cannon were wholly made by contract until within the last few years, mostly at the great works in Yorkshire and Staffordshire, and at Carron in Scotland; but a large factory has recently been established within the arsenal at Woolwich, and the government has to some extent acquired the power of lowering the price and expediting the supply. The casting does not differ much in detail from that of other large masses of iron-work. There is a central pattern or model of well-seasoned wood, or of iron; there is an exterior casting-box, or jacket of iron; and there is a mass of well-compacted sand and clay, or sand and coke-dust, in the annular space between the pattern and the jacket. The jacket and the annulus of sand are built up piecemeal, so that the mould shall be vertical in the casting-pit, with the muzzle upwards. At Woolwich there are furnaces, each of which would contain molten metal enough for a large gun, such as a 68-pounder; but it is deemed better to melt in two furnaces for the larger castings, and to let the two streams flow together into the mould. An additional mass of iron is left at the top, to compress the metal of the cannon by its weight when in the liquid state. After a due length of time for cooling, the jacket is opened and removed, the annulus of sand is knocked off, and the cannon is bored within and turned without, until the proper degree of smoothness is attained. In boring, according to some plans, the gun revolves, while the cutter is stationary; in others, the cutter revolves, while the gun is stationary. The cutter is a strong sharp steel tool at the end of a long bar; and a train of mechanism drives it onwards as fast as the bore is made. If the gun be cast hollow, the boring is only a kind of scraping of the interior; but if solid, the whole calibre is formed by a long-continued action of the cutter, which brings off the metal in fine fragments.

All the brass guns for British service are made by the government at Woolwich. The metal is in reality bronze, not brass (see preceding article). The general processes are similar to those for iron ordnance, with modifications depending partly on the smaller size of the guns, and partly on the characteristics of the metal. In France, brass guns are used much more largely than in England; they are lighter, stronger, and more durable than those of iron; and it is a question now largely discussed among military men, whether brass guns are or are not worth the greatly increased cost which they involve.

Certain peculiarities in the manufacture of special kinds of ordnance are noticed in the articles relating to them.

CA'NNON-BALL TREE (Couroupita Guian ensis), a tree of the natural order Lecythidacea, a native of Guiana, of great size, the trunk being often more than two feet in diameter. It has large

ovate-oblong leaves; the flowers are produced in racemes, they are white and rose-coloured; and the fruit is large, about the size of a 36-pound shot,' nearly round. The hard woody shell of this fruit is used for drinking-vessels.

CANNSTADT, a town of Würtemberg, beautifully situated on the Neckar, about 3 miles northeast of Stuttgart. It owes its origin to the Romans, of whose presence there are still found many traces. It has numerous mineral springs, discharging 800,000 cubic feet of water in the 24 hours, which are much frequented during the season; manufactures of woollens, cottons, tobacco, &c.; and a large trade by means of the Neckar. Pop.

5350.

CA'NO, ALONSO, an illustrious Spanish painter, the founder of the School of Granada, in which city he was born, March 1601. He received his first instructions in the principles of art from his father, Miguel Cano, who was an architect; studied sculpture under J. Montanes, and painting under Pacheco and Juan de Castillo; and attained celebrity so early, that, in 1638 or 1639, he was appointed court painter and architect to the king. C. was of a hasty temper, and was accused of having murdered his wife in a fit of violent jealousy, but the accusation appears to have been quite groundless. He was, however, subjected to the torture; but no confession having been elicited, he was acquitted and received again into the royal favour, named residentiary of Granada, and spent his last years in acts of devotion and charity. He died at Granada in 1664 or 1667.

In the opinion of Fuseli, he excelled all his contemporaries except Velasquez. His eminence in the three departments of the fine arts-sculpture, painting, and architecture obtained for him the hyperbolical honour of being called the Michael Angelo of Spain. His pictures, marked by graceful design and pleasing colouring, are very numerous, and are preserved in Granada, Seville, Madrid, Malaga, and other Spanish cities.

CANOE',* is a boat made of a hollowed trunk of a tree, or of the bark shaped and strengthened. Canoes have been made large enough to carry twenty or thirty hogsheads of sugar. Some have decks, and carry sail of rush or silk-grass; but they are generally open boats, rowed by paddles, and steered by an oar. They are seldom wide enough for two men to sit abreast, but vary greatly in length. Near sea-coasts, canoes are often made of light woodenframes, covered with seal-skins, which are also drawn across as a deck, with only a hole left for one man to sit in. In the Hudson's Bay Territories, canoes are used which are light enough to be carried over the portages, or portions of river too shallow for navigation. Canoes, hollowed out of the trunks of oaks, seem to have been in use among the early inhabitants of the British Islands. They have been dug up in considerable numbers in England, Scotland, and Ireland. They appear to have been chiefly of two sorts-one about 10 feet long, with square ends, and projecting handles; the other, about 20 feet long, sometimes sharp at both ends, sometimes round at the prow and square at

the stern. The accompanying wood-cut shews one of this last variety, dug out of a marsh in Sussex. CA'NON, a word originally Greek, and signifying a measuring-rod (see CANOE-foot-note), applied in various arts and sciences to what serves for a rule or standard, but particularly employed to designate collectively those books which constitute the Holy Scripture, and are accepted by Christians as a rule of faith. See BIBLE. In ecclesiastical language, the word canon signifies, besides, not only a church-precept, but also the decree of a universal council, which is held valid as law. See CANON LAW. At one period the word was used to designate the prayers which the Roman Catholic priests said before, at, and after the consecration of the Host; the term is also employed to denote the catalogue or register of Catholic saints.

CANON, an ecclesiastical dignitary, so called as living under a rule, or as following the rule or canon of divine service. His office is of no great antiquity. According to Paschier, the name was not known before Charlemagne. This, however, is

not precisely true, for the term C. was applied in the 4th c. to cenobites living under a common rule; but the office of C. is supposed to have been first instituted by Chrodegand, or Chrodegang, Bishop of Metz, in 763. It is at least certain that he was the author of the oldest canonical rule, which was simply an adaptation of the monastic rule (commonly but erroneously attributed to St Augustine) to the priests and clerks' specially

* The word is sometimes said to have been borrowed by the Spaniards from the native Indian name of such boats. But a similar name exists in the Aryan languages: Ger. kahn, a boat; Old Fr. cane, a ship, and canot, a boat. The root of these words is the same as that of cane (Lat. canna), a reed or hollow stem, and signifies hollowness, capacity; Gr. chaino, to gape or yawn. From the same root come cann, a drinkingbeing an augmentative from canna, a hollow stem or cup; cannon (Ital. cannone, properly a large tube, tube); canon (Gr.), a readily obtained from a joint of a reed; canal (Lat. ruler or straight rod, most canalis, a pipe or conduit).

attached to the service of a cathedral or other church. It enjoined on the canons manual labour, the practice of silence at certain times, confession twice a year, and other duties needless to specify. The canons formed the council of the bishop, and assisted him in the government of his diocese. They lived in a house called a monastery, slept in a common room, ate at the same table, and were originally supported out of the episcopal revenues. In 816, Louis le Débonnaire induced the Council of Aix-la-Chapelle to draw up a general rule for the whole body of canons. Canons found their way not long afterwards into England, Scotland, and Ireland. Various reforms of C. were made in the 11th and beginning of the 12th century. Gradually, however, many began to emancipate themselves from the restrictions of monastic life, and to live independent of any rule, which is not at all surprising, for the canons were wont to keep apart from the lower clergy,' as they called parish priests and others who really laboured to impart religious instruction. They were often of noble families, loved titles-at Lyon, they were called counts-and in general were men of the world rather than true churchmen. Some of these reformed or remodelled Canons were called Black Canons, from wearing a black cassock; others, White Canons, from wearing a white habit like the Præmonstratenses of Picardy in France. The class of secular canons, whose manner of life was not conventual, and who therefore escaped destruction in England when the monasteries were abolished by Henry VIII., probably originated in a tendency to relax the severity of rule enjoined on the regulars, which indeed was hardly less stringent than in the case of ordinary monks. Secular canons still exist in the Anglican Church, and their duties making allowance for the difference between the Roman Catholic and Protestant religions are much the same in kind as they were before the Reformation. See CATHEDRAL. CANON, in Music, a kind of fugue in which not merely a certain period or phrase is to be imitated or answered, but the whole of the first part with which the C. begins is imitated throughout by all the other parts. As in fugues, the melody of the part to be imitated is called the subject, and the others its reply. The C. is the highest degree of mechanical musical contrivance. The ancients spent more time in the construction and resolving of mere puzzling and unentertaining canons, than in the cultivation of good harmony and melody. Good canons, however, are always interesting, and different from any other composition. For a full treatment of writing a C., see Marpurg's Abhandlung von der Fuge, published by Peters, Leipzig.

at the end of the 12th century. 2. The Decretals. They are a collection of canonical epistles, in five books, written by popes alone, or assisted by some cardinals, to determine any controversy, and first published about the year 1230, by Raimundus Barcinus. They lay down rules respecting the lives and conversation of the clergy, matrimony and divorces, inquisition of criminal matters, purgation, penance, excommunication, and other matters deemed to be within the cognizance of the ecclesiastical courts. To these five books of Gregory, Boniface VIII. added a sixth, published 1298 A. D., called Sextus Decretalium, or the Sext, which is itself divided into five books, and forms a supplement to the work of Barcinus, of which it follows the arrangement. The Sext consists of decisions promulgated after the pontificate of Gregory IX. Then there came the Clementines, which were constitutions of Pope Clement V., published 1308 A. D. These decretals form the principal portion of the canon law. John Andreas, a celebrated canonist in the 14th c., wrote a commentary on them, which he entitled Novella, from a very beautiful daughter he had of that name, whom he bred a scholar; the father being a professor of law at Bologna, had instructed his daughter so well in it, that she assisted him in reading lectures to his scholars, and therefore, to perpetuate her memory, he gave that book the title of Novellæ. 3. The Extravagants of John XXII. and other later popes, by which term is meant to be denoted documents which transcend. the limits of a particular collection of regulations. These books, viz., Gratian's Decree, the Decretals, and the Extravagants, together form the Corpus Juris Canonici, or great body of the 'canon law,' as formerly received and administered by the Church of Rome. There are, however, other publications of a later period, of more or less authority, but which do not appear to have received the formal sanction of the Holy See.

This C. L., borrowing from the Roman civil law many of its principles and rules of proceeding, has the most learned and scientific treatment at the at different times undergone careful revision and hands of its professors, and was very generally received in those Christian states which acknowledge the supremacy of the pope; and it still gives ecclesiastical law more or less to Roman Catholic countries been considerably modified by the conChristendom, although its provisions have in many cordats (q. v.) which the popes now and then find it expedient to enter into with Roman Catholic sovereigns and governments, whose municipal_system integrity. Indeed, the fact of its main object being does not admit of the application of the C. L. in its to establish the supremacy of the ecclesiastical authority over the temporal power, is sufficient to explain why, in modern times, it is found to conflict with the views of public law and government, even in the case of the most absolute and despotic governments.

This ecclesiastical system, however, never obtained a firm footing in England, and the great lawyers and statesmen have always shewn not only an unwillingness to defer to its authority, but even an aversion to its rule. There was, however, a kind of

provincial constitutions, adapted to the particular necessities of the English Church. The legative constitutions were ecclesiastical laws, enacted in national synods, held under the Cardinals Otho and Othobon, legates from Pope Gregory IX. and Pope Clement IV., in the reign of King Henry III., about the years 1220 and 1268. The provincial constitutions are principally the decrees of provincial synods, held under divers archbishops of Canterbury, from Stephen