CALCULATING MACHINE-CALCULUS. is formed from water holding carbonate of lime in solution, and occurs generally incrusting the roofs, walls, and floors of caves, particularly those in limestone rocks; often assuming curious and even fantastic forms. Macalister's Cave, in the Isle of Skye, and the limestone caves of Derbyshire, are the most celebrated British localities. But the stalactitic cave of Antiparos, in the Grecian Archipelago, is a far more famous locality for this mineral, which is often called Calcareous Alabaster, and used for the same purposes with the true alabaster (q. v.), to which it is in some respects preferable, particularly as not being liable to injury from exposure to the air. Volterra, in Tuscany, is another very famous locality for Calc-sinter. CA'LCULATING MACHINE. The most remarkable application hitherto made of machinery, is perhaps that through which it has been used to relieve the scientific inquirer to a very great extent of the fatigue of manipulating figures, which consumes so much of his time and energies. Various machines have been constructed for this purpose, differing in the extent of their faculties-to use words more suitable to thinking beings than to engines-and somewhat in the principles of their construction. By the Arithmometer, for instance, a machine invented by M. Thomas of Colmar, all ordinary arithmetical operations are executed without fatigue to the operator; and by a machine contrived by M. M. Scheutz, which rests on the principle of Differences (q.v.), on the turning of a wheel, the successive terms of any series whose law may be confided to it, are produced-the machine at the same time printing a large proportion of its results, and thus providing for the accuracy of its tables. It is a fact of which the nation should be proud, that our countryman, Mr Babbage, is universally acknowledged as the instigating and guiding genius in the progress of these remarkable inventions. Among his inventions are a Difference Engine, of very comprehensive powers, indeed capable of managing series so complex that the differences of its terms do not reach zero until we ascend to the seventh order (vide art. DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF). An immense range of nautical and astronomical tables lie within the limits just defined; and the machine further tabulates approximately any series whatever that can be treated by the Method of Differences. While engaged in constructing the Difference Machine, Mr Babbage, probably through his increased experience of the capabilities of machinery, was led to form a new conception-that, namely, of the Analytical Machine. This has not yet been fully realised; but there is no doubt but that, with proper encouragement, Mr Babbage would successfully construct it. He has actually succeeded so far as to devise the means of making his machine perform all the elementary operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division; and it is clear that all changes that can be produced on quantity are merely combinations of these. If, then, he could but make his machine perform these operations at command, and according to any special order, it could clearly develop any function whatever whose law is ascertained and fixed. A solution of this difficulty was suggested by the Jacquard Loom (q. v.), in which the cards oblige a machine capable of working any pattern to work out one particular pattern; and Mr Babbage having succeeded so far as to form a machine capable of executing any development, expects, by means of cards of operations, to compel his C. M. to work according to one fixed law, and no other. The withdrawal of the government aid, given to him for a series of years, has, however, much to the public regret and loss, prevented, let us hope See CA'LCULUS, or STONE (in Medicine), a hard concretion formed within the animal body, in consequence of the deposition in the solid form_of matters which usually remain in solution. CONCRETION. The concretions most commonly termed calculi are those formed in the kidneys or bladder (Urinary C.); and those formed in the gallbladder or biliary ducts (Biliary C.). Both of these give rise to very painful symptoms, and may even threaten life. Biliary C., or Gall-stone, may generally be presumed to exist when excessively severe pain suddenly arises in the right side beneath the border of the ribs, and when in a few hours jaundice comes on, shewing that some obstruction has existed to the outward flow of the bile. But the absolute proof that these symptoms depend on C. is often wanting. The pain is fortunately transitory, but is more severe while it lasts than almost any other known form of suffering, unless it be that of a C. in the kidney and ureter. It may be relieved by large doses of opium, but the remedy requires to be cautiously given, as even in medical hands fatal accidents have occurred. Gall-stones, when impacted in the ducts, sometimes have proved fatal; but much more frequently they find their way, sooner or later, into the intestines. They are almost invariably composed of cholesterine (q. v.), with colouring matter and mucus, arranged in layers in a semi-crystalline disposition. In Urinary C. is a disease of all ages, but most common in advanced life and in the male sex. It is also very frequent in gouty persons, or among those who pursue sedentary occupations, and live freely. It is rare among those who live much in the open air, or who take much violent exercise, and use little animal food and wine. Among sailors, it is pecu. liarly rare. In certain parts of the country, the disease is said to be frequent, as in Norfolk, and perhaps along the east coast of Scotland. India, too, where some of the predisposing circumstances mentioned above can hardly be said to prevail, stone is by no means uncommon. It would appear, therefore, that the predisposing causes of C. are still very imperfectly understood. In its early stages, the disease usually presents itself in the form of Gravel, shewn by the passage of numerous very small portions of gritty concretions, which may be observed in the urine as a deposit like sand, or like small grains of Cayenne pepper. When such deposits occur frequently, especially if they are present at the time of passing the urine, and not merely after it has cooled, there is reason to apprehend the formation of calculus. If, in these circumstances, there are pains of a dull character in the loins, with occasional twinges of sharper suffering, no time should be lost in seeking medical advice. If a fit of very severe pain should occur in a person for some time affected with gravel, if the urine be bloody, if agonising twinges, commencing in the loins, sting downwards into the thigh or the groin, it is probable that a stone has already formed in the kidney, and is being displaced towards the bladder. C. in the bladder is at first attended with little suffering, as compared with that caused by the stone in its passage downwards from the kidney; but unless removed or evacuated, the C. is sure to enlarge, and it then becomes the cause of one of the most painful diseases that afflict humanity. The existence of a stone in the bladder, CALCULUS. however, should never be taken for granted without a surgical examination, as all the symptoms are deceptive in certain cases. The most striking, and perhaps the most trustworthy evidence of stone in the bladder, apart from the use of the sound (see LITHOTOMY), is smarting and burning pain experienced after the bladder has been emptied, together with occasional temporary stoppage in the flow of urine. The correct appreciation of all the symptoms, however, demands considerable familiarity with such cases. The discovery of the tendency to urinary C. at an early period of its growth, has been greatly aided by the use of the microscope and of chemical tests. Generally speaking, it may be said that whenever the urine, after standing for a few hours, can be observed to contain more sediment than a very slight cloudiness towards the bottom of the vessel, there is room for careful inquiry into the existence of some derangement of the health. But all sediments are not equally apt to determine C., nor is the treatment of the different kinds of sediment at all similar; care should therefore be taken to determine, from time to time, whether the character of the sediment may have undergone a change, so that the treatment may be adapted accordingly. The chief varieties of urinary C. are-1. Uric acid (red sand); 2. Urates of ammonia, soda, lime, &c. (brick-dust sediment); 3. Phosphates of ammonia and magnesia, lime, &c.; 4. Oxalate of lime; 5. Carbonate of lime (chiefly in domestic animals); 6. Cystine; 7. Xanthic oxide (a very rare form, discovered by Dr Marcet). Calculi are frequently found to be composed of numerous successive layers, having a perfectly distinct chemical composition. Urates and phosphates in particular frequently succeed each other, and form what is called an alternating calculus. Alternating Calculus-from Dr Marcet's Essay on a, uric acid nucleus; b, oxalate of lime; c, phosphates of lime, and of magnesia and ammonia. CA'LCULUS, THE INFINITESIMAL, otherwise sometimes called the Transcendental Analysis, is a branch of mathematical science which commands, by one general method, the most difficult problems in geometry and physics. The merit of the invention of this powerful mathematical instrument has been claimed for Leibnitz, but is undoubtedly due with equal justice to Newton, who laid the foundations for it in that celebrated section of his Principia in which he demonstrates the chief theorems regarding the ultimate values or limits of the ratios of variable quantities. The view of one class of writers is, that these distinguished men invented the C. simultaneously and independently; and it is the fact that Leibnitz's system is unfolded from premises differing somewhat from those of Newton. See FLUXIONS. Another class of writers hold that Newton is the real inventor, and that to Leibnitz no more can be conceded than that he was the first who, using the suggestions of Newton's genius, gave a systematic statement to the principle of the transcendental analysis, and invented its appropriate symbolic language. He had the doctrine of limits before him when he wrote, and did little more than unfold more fully the logic of the processes therein suggested, and exhibit them in algebraical forms. The Infinitesimal C., both in its pure and applied forms, whether of geometry or mechanics, is a branch of the science of number; its symbols are of the same kind, are operated on according to the same laws, and lead to analogous results. It differs from the other branches of the science of number, such as arithmetic and algebra, in regarding number as continuous-i. e., as being capable of gradual growth and of infinitesimal increase, whereas they deal with finite and discontinuous numbers. It differs from ordinary algebra in another respect. In the latter, the values of unknown quantities, and their relations with each other, are detected by aid of equations established between these quantities directly; in the C., on the other hand, the equations between the quantities are not directly established, but are obtained by means of other equations primarily established, not between them, but certain derivatives from them, or elements of them. This artifice is most fertile, for it can be shewn that in the great majority of cases the relations of quantities concerned in any problem may more easily be inferred from equations between these their derivatives or elements than between themselves. It will be seen that the C. created a new notion of number-as continuous or growing. It is now necessary, in order to a proper conception of it, that a precise idea should be formed of a differential. The simplest idea of a differential is unquestionably that got by considering number as made up of infinitesimal elements, and a differential or 'infinitesimal' as being the value of the difference between a number at one stage of its growth and at another very near it. Every finite number being-in the view of the C. as first conceived by Leibnitz-composed of an infinite number of these infinitesimal elements, certain axioms at once present themselves When C. has once fairly formed in the urinary regarding infinitesimals; as, for instance, that a passages, it seems probable that no absolute cure finite number of them has no value at all when exists except the removal of it, if possible, from the added to a finite quantity. Many other such axioms body (see LITHOTOMY and LITHOTRITY); but in the readily follow, from which, on this view, the whole stage of gravel, and still more in the earlier stages theory of the infinitesimal C. may be constructed. detected by careful examination of the urine, much But there are logical objections to this mode of may be done to check the tendency to this distress-forming the theory of the transcendental analysis, ing and dangerous malady. The chief remedies and of three views that have been propounded, consist in careful regulation of the diet and mode of living, together with the use of solvents adapted to the particular form of deposit found to be habitually present. See URINE that now universally accepted as the most logical, and as being capable of the easiest application, is that founded on the method of limits, already referred to as the invention of Newton. The dx Dx meaning of a differential on this view will now be explained. F(x + Dx) − F(x) ᎠᏆ F(x + Dx) − F(x) Dx It is clear that the C. can be applied only where numbers may have the continuous character-i. e., It is clear that, in the general case, where they are or may be conceived as being variable. If two unknown quantities are connected at the limit will still be some function of x. Calling by a single equation only, we clearly have the condition satisfied, as where y and x are connected by the equation (1) y = F(x), where F is a sign denoting some function of x, as tan. x, cos. x, x2, &c. This equality may be satisfied by innumerable values of y and x. One question which the C. solves is, how does y vary when x varies? To solve it, and, at the same time, shew how the doctrine of limits affects the definition of a differential, suppose x, y, and z + Dx, y + Dy, to be two pairs of values of the variables which satisfy the above equation; then (2) y= = F(x), and (3) y + Dy = F(x + Dx). From (2) and (3) we have, by subtraction, | dy it F'(x), we have generally F'(x). F(x) is dr called the first differential coefficient of y or F(x). Being a function of x, it may be again differentiated. The result is written "(x) being the second differential coefficient of y or F(x); and again F"(x) may be a function of x, and of the differential C. to shew how to obtain the so capable of differentiation. Now, it is the object various differentials of those few simple functions of quantity which are recognised in analysis, whether they are presented singly or in any form of combination. Such functions are the sum, difference, product, and quotient of variables, and their powers and roots; exponentials, logarithms; and direct and inverse circular functions. The C. so far is complete as we can differentiate any of those functions or any combination of them-whether the functions be explicit or implicit ; and with equal ease we may differentiate them a second or any number of times. This C. is capable of many interesting applications Oas to problems of maxima and minima, the tracing of curves, &c., which cannot here be particularly noticed. This ratio will generally change in value as Dx and Dy diminish, till, as they both vanish, which they must do simultaneously, it assumes the form Taking this form, it ceases to have a determinate actual value, and it is necessary to resort to the method of limits, to ascertain the value to which it was approaching, as Dr and Dy approached zero. Let, then, dx and dy be any quantities whose ratio is equal to the limiting ratio of the increments Dx, Dy, so that dy dx 2. THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS deals with the inverse of the former problem. The former was: Given F(x), to find F(x), F"(x), and so on. The present is in the simplest case-viz., that of an explicit funcdy tion: Given = F'(x), to find F(x). The methods of the Integral C., instead of being general, are little better than artifices suited to particular cases; no popular view can be given of these. In many cases, integration is quite impossible. The explanation of integration by parts, by approximation, definite integrals, and singular solutions, is far beyond the scope of the present work. The reader is referred to any of the numerous text-books on the subject. The Integral C. has applications in almost every branch of mathematical and physical science. It is Dx Dy as Dx and Dy approach zero. Then dx and dy are the differentials of x and y. It may be observed that where x and y are connected as above, they cannot vary independently of one another. In the case assumed, x has been taken as what is called the independent variable, the question being, how does y vary when x varies. If y were made the independent variable, it would be necessary to solve the equation y = F(x), if possible, so as to express x in terms of specially of use in determining the lengths of curved The result would be an equation x = (y). This lines, the areas of curved surfaces, and the solid being obtained, we should find limit contents of regular solids of whatever form. The Dy whole of the lunar and planetary theories may be before. It will be seen that on this view differentials described as an application of the integral C., especially are defined merely by their ratio to one another. of that branch of it which deals with the integraTheir actual magnitude is perfectly arbitrary. This, tion of differential equations. It is applied, too, in however, does not render an equation involving hydrostatics and hydrodynamics, and in the sciences differentials indeterminate, since their relative mag- of light, sound, and heat. In short, it is an instrunitude is definite, and since, from the nature of the ment without which most of the leading triumphs definition, a differential cannot appear on one side in physical science could never have been achieved. of an equation without another connected with it appearing on the other. The idea of a differential being once comprehended, the reader will be able to understand, in a general way, the main divisions of the C., which we shall now briefly delineate. So much is clear from what has been stated, that there must be two main divisions-one by which, the primary quantities being known, we may determine their differentials; and another by which, knowing the differentials, we may detect the primary quantities. These divisions constitute the Differential C. and Integral C. respectively. 1. THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS.-Recurring to the formula already given we know CALCULUS OF VARIATIONS.-The foundation of this C. is a method of differentiation, but of quite a peculiar kind. As above explained, the object of the differential C. is to determine the form which a function, such as F(x), will assume if x receive an indefinitely small increment, such as Dr. In the C. of variations, the object is to ascertain and lay down the laws of the changes supervening on a slight alteration of the form of the function, or should F(x) become Fr. This C. commands with ease a class of problems called problems of isoperimeters, which were formerly insoluble. It has also power over mechanical problems, and many departments of high physics cannot be touched without its aid. Mr Airy and Professor Jellet have both CALCUTTA. written works on the subject, which may be consulted. CALCULUS OF FINITE DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF FUNCTIONS, and CALCULUS OF OPERATIONS.-For brief notices of these growths from the original Transcendental Analysis, see DIFFERENCES, FUNCTIONS, and OPERATIONS. CALCUTTA, the capital of the presidency of Bengal and of all British India, and the chief commercial city of Asia, is situated on the left or east bank of the Hoogly, one of the principal arms of the Ganges, nearly a hundred miles from the sea, in lat. 22° 35' N., long. 88° 30' E. The river adjacent to the city varies in breadth from rather more than a quarter to about three-quarters of a mile. Ships of 1400 or 1500 tons can ascend to C., where there is anchorage in six or seven fathoms of water; for greater security, however, against the violent gales which not unfrequently occur, the vessels are often made fast by strong moorings along the river's bank. The city stands on a level tract of land, and extends from north to south nearly five miles; its greatest breadth from east to west is about two miles. Pop. estimated at from 600,000 to 700,000, of whom the Europeans and those of European extraction, including half-castes, may amount to about 15,000. The remainder, though consisting chiefly of natives of India, includes persons from almost every part of Asia, from the neighbouring islands, and from Eastern Africa. The southern portion of C., called Chowringhee, comprises the principal European residences, many of which are fine, and even splendid edifices, so that the town, viewed from that side, may merit the appellation, which it has frequently received, of the 'City of Palaces.' Towards the south-western extremity of the city, there is a large open space, popularly known as the Maidan (pronounced "my-dân"), or Plain,' nearly two miles long, and varying in breadth from about three-fourths of a mile at its northern, to a mile and a half at its southern margin. The northern portion of this plain is called the Esplanade. The Maidan is bounded on the west by the Hoogly, and on the east by the Chowringhee Road. It is intersected by various streets or roads, which, with the Strand (along the river), constitute the fashionable 'drives' for the wealthy Europeans of Calcutta. Near the river, and about equally distant from the north and south extremities of the Maidan, stands Fort William, the most important fortress of India. It occupies, with its outworks, a space of more than half a mile in diameter, mounting upwards It will conveniently hold, it is said, for purposes of defence, 15,000 men. of 600 cannon. Among the principal edifices of C., the most conspicuous is the Government House, or residence of the governor-general, a magnificent palace, built by the Marquis of Wellesley (q. v.), and situated on the northern border of the Esplanade, about one-third of a mile from the river. It has four wings, and the central building is surmounted by a splendid dome. The houses of Esplanade Row, in a line with the Government House, and facing the Maidan, are among the finest in Calcutta. Of the various monuments with which the city is adorned, the most worthy of notice are, perhaps, the statue of the Marquis of Wellesley, and Sir David Ochterlony's monument, a lofty tower standing near the north-eastern extremity of the Maidan. The summit of this tower commands an extensive and magnificent view of the city and its environs. C. is the residence of an English bishop, who is metropolitan of all India. The city contains religious edifices of almost every class, comprising, besides Christian churches of various denominations, Hindu temples, Mohammedan mosques, and a Chinese temple. C. is the seat of numerous educational institutions, both secular and religious. Among the former are, the college of Fort William, originally designed especially for the Company's civil service; the Sanscrit college; the Madrussa or Mohammedan college; and the Hindu college; all under the control of the government. The principal institutions affording religious instruction are Bishop's College, intended chiefly for the education of missionaries, teachers, &c.; and the institutions of the Established and Free Churches of Scotland, which are conducted with great ability, and have been eminently successful. Of the literary and scientific institutions of C., the most important is the Asiatic Society, which possesses an extensive and valuable museum, and an excellent library, exceedingly rich in Oriental works and rare manuscripts. The museum contains specimens illustrating almost every department of the antiquities as well as the natural history of India. There is also a large and well-selected public library, which is not only free to all visitors, but those wishing to take out books are accommodated on the most liberal terms. Among other objects of interest, the Mint, situated in Clive Street, deserves particular mention. The machinery for coinage, and the general arrangements, are of the most perfect kind. It is stated that in this establishment 500,000 coins can be struck off in twenty-four hours. C. is supplied with excellent water, brought from the numerous tanks throughout the city by waterbearers or bahisties (familiarly called beesties by the English), who carry it in large leathern bags. The tanks, which are walled with mason-work, exceed 1000 in number. They are, for two reasons, a necessary of life to the city. Boring has uniformly failed, though carried, on one occasion, to the depth of about 500 feet; and the river is, in general, so brackish, as to be unfit for domestic use. reservoirs rely altogether on the wet season, being either fed directly from the heavens, or else supplied from the Hoogly, when it is sufficiently freshened by the periodical rains. It is only for such rough purposes as the watering of the streets, that the stream itself is rendered immediately available. The Among the principal objects of interest in the vicinity of the city is the Botanic Garden, situated on the opposite side of the river, about three miles below Calcutta. It contains an extensive and varied collection of tropical plants from both hemispheres, among which the great banyan-tree, covering more than two acres of ground, attracts the notice and wonder of all beholders. Garden Reach, a beautiful suburb of C., extends a considerable distance along the left bank of the Hoogly, opposite the Botanic Garden, from which it derives its name. consists chiefly of the palatial residences of wealthy merchants doing business in the city. In C. all the necessaries, and nearly all the luxuries of life, whether produced in the neighbouring districts, or imported from the most distant countries, may be obtained at very moderate prices. Living at hotels is indeed cheaper here than in most of the cities of Europe or America. It C. was founded by Mr Charnock, agent of the East India Company, near the close of the 17th c., on or near the site of a small village called Kalikutta, the village of the goddess Kali,' whence the present name of the city. (The temple of Kali, immediately south of C., is still frequented at the period of the annual worship, or puja, by vast multitudes of devotees.) In 1756, the place was 507 CALDAS-CALDERON. taken, and nearly destroyed, by Suraja Dowlah, the Spanish for warm springs (aquas, waters, being Nabob of Bengal, on which occasion 123 English prisoners were suffocated in the Black Hole' (q. v.). In the following year (1757), Colonel, after wards Lord, Clive, gained the important victory of Plassey, which may be said to have established the British dominion in India. Soon after, the present Fort William was built, and from that date the city has been constantly and rapidly increasing in wealth and population until it has become the metropolis of a mighty empire. C., in fact, is the key, military and mercantile, of the spacious and populous basins both of the Ganges and of the Brahmaputra. Along each of its subject valleys C. has established steam-navigation, thus bringing Assam and Allahabad within comparatively easy reach of itself and of one another, while it is, twice a month, connected with England by voyages of five weeks. C., at the same time, communicates by railway with the north-west, as it soon will do with Bombay and Madras, being already linked by the electrical wire with all the three. But the city's tenure of its river is believed to be precarious to be, in fact, steadily weakening. Through the same influences which have created, and are still extending, the delta of Bengal, the Hoogly is known to be silting up from the bottom. Even as to this, however, C. is not without a remedy. The Mutwal or Roymatla, the fourth channel of any magnitude to the eastward of the Hoogly, which is itself the most westerly, has never less water in it than three fathoms, so that a ship of considerable burden can ascend to Taida, a village apparently as near to C. as Diamond Harbour, its ordinary port at present. With this available stream, C., as has been suggested, may, in case of necessity, be joined by a railway, or by a canal of adequate dimensions. Politically, the alarming crisis of 1857 has had its effect on Calcutta. The insurrection, it is true, did not actually break forth here, being probably kept down by that self-relying attitude of the citizens which it had provoked; but the transfer of authority, which the insurrection may be said to have occasioned, has virtually placed under C. the eastern dominions of the crown as well as those of the Company; so that, after the lapse of little more than 100 years, the Black Hole of 1756 is now the centre of a viceroyalty, which, from Cashmere to Singapore, and from Hong Kong to Aden, includes three times the population of Russia, and embraces about as many degrees of latitude and of longitude as the whole of Europe. understood), which are very abundant in the Peninsula, where a great number of places have received their names from the presence of these mineral waters; such as C. de Malavella, C. de Estrac, and C. de Mombuy, in Catalonia; C. de Reyes, C. de Cuntis, and C. de Tuy, in Galicia; C. de Taipas, C. de Faveios, C. de Rainhas, and C. de Renduse, in Portugal. The name has also passed into the topography of the New World. There is a C. in Brazil, which is noted for its hot sulphur springs. CA'LDER, a river in the West Riding of Yorkshire. It rises in a marsh on the borders of deep valley of Todmorden, past Halifax, Dewsbury, Lancashire, near Burnley, runs tortuously east in the and Wakefield. It then runs north-east, and after a total course of 40 miles, it joins the Aire near Pontefract, that river falling into the Ouse. The C. is important as forming a considerable portion of the canal route through Yorkshire and Lancashire, between the east and west coasts of England. CAʼLDERON (DON PEDRO) DE LA BARCA HENAO Y RIANO, was born in Madrid, in the year 1601, and received his early education in the Jesuits' College at Madrid. Afterwards, at Salamanca, he studied chiefly history, philosophy, and law. His poetical genius was precocious. Before he was 14 years old, he had written a drama, El Carro del Cielo (The Celestial Chariot). In early life he gained, by his poetry, and also by his fertile invention of decorations, &c., for festive occasions, the patronage of several distinguished persons, and, on leaving Salamanca, 1619, was well received by the courtiers at Madrid. Love of military adventure induced him to enter the army, 1625; and, after serving with distinction in Milan and the Netherlands, he was recalled to the court of Philip IV., a prince fond of theatrical amusements, by whom he was employed to superintend various court-amusements, and especially to invent dramas for the Royal Theatre. In the following year C. was made knight of the order of San Jago, and took part in the campaign in Catalonia. Peace brought him back to poetry. The king gave him a pension, contrived to let him cultivate uninterruptedly his fertile dramatic genius, and spared no cost in securing for his plays a splendid initiation on the stage. In 1651, Č. received from the head of the order of San Jago permission to enter the church, and, in 1653, was appointed to the chaplaincy of the arch-episcopal church of Toledo; but as this post removed him too far from the court, he was appointed chaplain in the Royal Chapel at Madrid, 1663, and received, with other favours, a pension charged on the revenue of Sicily. In the same year he was appointed a priest in the brotherhood of San Pedro, and, shortly before his death, was elected by his brethren as their caplan mayor. He died May 25, 1681, leaving his considerable property to the fraternity of San Pedro, by whom a splendid monument to his memory was raised in the church of San Salvador at Madrid Fame and pecuniary prosperity had accompanied his career. The chief cities of Spain-such as Toledo, Seville, and Granada-had paid him, from time to time, large sums of money for writing their Autos Sacramentales, or Corpus Christi pieces. In these compositions, C. excelled all his predecessors, and esteemed them more highly than all his other works, though in many respects the latter display 1,501,068 1,441,629 the author's genius quite as remarkably. In 1852, C. was erected into a sort of municipality, the proprietors paying assessments and electing commissioners for cleansing, improving, and embellishing the city. About the same time, the Oriental Gas Company of London, organised for India in general, selected its metropolis as the first scene of its operations. During a series of 6 years, the annual fall of rain was found to average 64 inches. The mean temperature is 66° F. in January, 69° in February, 80° in March, 85° in April and May, 83° in June, 81° in July, 82° in August and September, 79° in October, 74° in November, and 66° in December. The maritime commerce of C., as compared with that of the other seats of presidency, stands as follows in the official returns for 1857: Bengal. Tonnage of ves-) sels entered and Tons, 1,606,583 cleared, Exports, Bombay. Madras. £13,443,967 £10,740.004 £2,407.906 Spain numbers C. among its greatest poets, and criticism must allow that many of the defects in his works are to be ascribed to circumstances, and the CA'LDAS, or CALDE'TAS (Lat. Callidus, hot), times in which he lived, rather than to the native |