frequent reasons for matriculating the arms of the younger branches of families of distinction in the Lord Lyon's Register, is that they may be properly distinguished from those borne by the head of the house.

CADENZA, in Music, an ornamental succession of notes introduced at pleasure by the performer at the finishing of a phrase.

CA'DER I'DRIS (Chair of Idris, a reputed giant), a picturesque mountain in Merionethshire, Wales, 5 miles south-south-west of Dolgelly. It consists of an immense ridge of broken precipices, 10 miles long, and 1 to 3 miles broad; the highest peak reaching an elevation of 2914 feet. It is composed of basalt, porphyry, and other trap rocks, with beds of slag and pumice. The view from the summit, which is very extensive, includes the Wrekin in Shropshire, and St George's Channel almost to the Irish coast. CADE'T, MILITARY (Fr. cadet, younger, junior in service allied in derivation and meaning to cadency (q. v.) in heraldry), is a term applied in a general sense to a junior member of a noble family as distinguished from the eldest; and in France, any officer junior to another is a C. in respect to him. In a strict military sense, however, a C. is a youth studying for the public service.

In England, military cadetship has presented two aspects, according as it related to the East India Company's or to the royal service. When the Company possessed political and military authority in India, there were about 5000 English officers in their pay. Those who commanded the Company's own regiments had been professionally educated by the Company. A youth, nominated by the directors, was examined as to his proficiency in an ordinary English education, and admitted between the ages of 14 and 18 to Addiscombe School or College, near Croydon. If a probation of six months resulted satisfactorily, he entered upon a two years' course of study. If he passed through this ordeal well, he became a C. in the Company's service, receiving pay or salary, and being available for service in India, as opportunity might offer. The system of Indian cadetship underwent various modifications, by the introduction of competition in the appointments, and by the transference of the Company's powers to the Crown; and the proposed (1860) amalgamation of the Indian and royal armies, will (if acted upon) nullify the distinctive characters of East India cadets.

The second aspect of military cadetship in England, adverted to above, is that of the Royal or Queen's cadets. The arrangements in operation until recently will be found noticed under SANDHURST COLLEGE; and the present arrangements under CADETS' COLLEGE and STAFF COLLEGE.

CADET, NAVAL, is the lowest grade of officer in the royal navy. The cadets enter the royal service at 12 to 14 years of age. Every captain, on being appointed to a ship in commission, is allowed to nominate one C.; every flag-officer (admiral, &c.), two, on receiving his flag; but all the rest are nominated by the First Lord of the Admiralty, subject to regulations recently made concerning competitive examinations. The candidates are examined at the Royal Naval College at Portsmouth; if they pass, they are sent for three months to a training ship at Portsmouth or Plymouth, to learn the elements of rigging and seamanship. If they do not progress sufficiently in the training ship, they are rejected; but if the report is favourable, they become cadets, and are put into sea-going ships. While on board, the C. is expected to watch and learn as much as possible of what is going on-saluting officers, tying knots,

splicing ropes, arranging rigging, learning technical terms, going aloft, keeping the log, keeping watch, &c. If the C. serves satisfactorily for 3 months in a training ship, and 15 months in a sea-going ship, he becomes eligible for the next higher rank in the navy-that of midshipman. The cadets mess with the midshipmen on shipboard. There are 375 cadets on the navy estimates for 1860-1861.

ences.

CADETS' COLLEGE was established in 1858 by a remodelling of the Junior Department of the Royal Military College at Sandhurst. Its objects are, to give a sound military education to youths intended for the army, and to facilitate the obtaining of commissions when the education is finished. The age of admission is between 16 and 19. The friends of a youth, able to pay the sums of money presently to be named, apply to the commander-inchief for permission to place the youth on the list of candidates; this permission is usually granted on production of satisfactory certificates and referThe youth may go up for examination on any half-year. The list of subjects includes English composition, continental languages, mathematics, history, geography, natural sciences, experimental sciences, and drawing. After the examination, the candidates are reported to the commander-in-chief in their order of merit. Those who have the most marks are admitted as cadets as soon as vacancies occur in the college. When entered, they study for with military science and practice. The friends years on a great variety of subjects connected supply clothing, books, and instruments. The annual payment for education, board, and lodging varies from £100 per annum down to £20; the highest sum being demanded for the sons of private gentlemen,' while the lowest is deemed sufficient have died in the service, and whose families are for the sons of officers of the army or navy who proved to be left in pecuniary distress.' Twenty of the youths are Queen's cadets,' sons of officers 'who have fallen in action, or have died from the in reduced circumstances.' These 20 cadets are admitted and educated gratuitously. When the course is completed, the cadets are eligible to the reception of commissions in the cavalry and infantry, a certain number of which are placed at the disposal of the college.

two

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effects of active service, and have left their families

At the most recent competitive examination, in June 1860, the examiners announced that 40 cadets The commander-in-chief had, however, only 20 were fitting recipients of commissions in the army. commissions for bestowal, owing to the difficulties connected with the system of army purchase.

CADET'S FUMING LIQUOR. See CACODYLE. CA'DI, an Arabic word signifying a judge or person learned in the law, the title of an inferior judge amongst the Mohammedan nations, who, like the Mollah (q. v.), or superior judge, must be chosen from the higher ranks of the priesthood, as all law is founded upon the Koran.

CA'DIZ (ancient Gades), an important commercial city of Spain, capital of the modern province of the same name, which forms a part of the great division of Andalusia; is situated at the extremity of the long narrow isthmus of the Isle of Leon, in lat. 36° 32′ N., and long. 6° 17′ W. The Atlantic Ocean washes its western and part of its southern side, and on the north and north-east it is enclosed by the Bay of Cadiz, a deep inlet of the Atlantic, forming an outer and an inner bay. Connected by only a narrow strip of ground (in some places not above 200 yards across) with the mainland, C. is admirably situated for defence; but though it has several sea and land fortifications, these are by no means considered

impregnable. The town, which is surrounded by walls, forms nearly a square, each side being about a mile and a half in length. The houses being built of white stone, the city presents a remarkably bright and clean appearance from the sea. The streets are well paved and lighted, regular, but narrow, and there are some pleasant public walks, the most frequented of which is the Alameda. It has few public buildings of note; its two cathedrals are, on the whole, but poor specimens of ecclesiastical architecture, and its pictures, with the exception of one or two excellent pieces by Murillo, are of little value. As a commercial city, C. has greatly declined since the emancipation of the Spanish colonies in South America; but it is still, so far as the amount of tonnage of vessels entering and leaving, and the value of exports are concerned, the chief of Spanish ports, though with regard to the value of imports it stands below Barcelona and Santander. Ships with tonnage to the amount of 231,253 tons, and 151,992 tons, respectively, entered and cleared out of the port of C. in 1856; the value of imports and of exports in the same year being 138,343,590 reals (£1,383,435) and 187,001,584 reals (£1,870,015); in the latter case, little more than a third of what it was in 1849. The exports consist of wine, olive-oil, fruits, salt, and metals; and the manufactures of glass, coarse woollen cloth, soap, hats, leather, &c. Pop. (1857) 71,914.

C. is one of the most ancient towns in Europe, having been built by the Phoenicians, under the name of Gaddir, 347 years before the foundation of Rome, or about 1100 B. C. It afterwards passed into the hands of the Carthaginians, from whom it was captured by the Romans, who named it Gades, and under them it soon became a city of vast wealth and importance. Occupied afterwards by the Goths and Moors, it was taken by the Spaniards in 1262. In 1587, Drake destroyed the Spanish fleet in the bay; nine years later, it was pillaged and burned by Lord Essex; and in 1625 and 1702, it was unsuccessfully attacked by other English forces After the revolution (1808), C. became the headquarters of the insurrectionary junta, by whose orders it was separated from the mainland. The French, in February 1810, commenced a blockade, which they vigorously persevered in, capturing several of the forts, until August 25, 1812, when the victories of the Duke of Wellington forced them to abandon it. The city was besieged and taken by the French in 1823, and held by them

until 1828.

CA'DMIA is the term applied to the crust formed in zinc furnaces, and which contains from 10 to 20 per cent. of cadmium.

CA'DMIUM is a metal which occurs in zinc ores, and, being more volatile than zinc, rises in vapour, and distils over with the first portions of the metal. See ZINC. C. is represented by the symbol Cd, has the atomic weight or equivalent 5574, and the specific gravity 86. It is a white metal, somewhat resembling tin; is malleable and ductile; fuses at 442° F., and rises in vapour a little above 600°. It is rarely prepared pure, and is not employed in the arts as a metal, though one or more of its salts have been serviceable in medicine. The sulphide of C., CdS, occurs naturally as the mineral Greenockite, and when prepared artificially, is of a bright yellow colour. It is known as CADMIUM YELLOW, and is of great value to the artist. A great variety of tints are produced by mixing it with white-lead. Much of what is sold as Naples Yellow (q. v.) is thus prepared; but the genuine Naples Yellow has a greenish tint, which renders it easily distinguishable from the imitation. Cadmium

Yellow, however, has many valuable qualities, which are causing it rapidly to supersede Naples Yellow.

CA'DMUS (according to Apollodorus and others) was the son of Agenor and Telephassa, and the brother of Europa. When the latter was carried off by Zeus, he and his brothers, as also their mother, were sent in quest of her, with injunctions from Agenor not to return without her. Their search was vain, and the oracle at Delphi told C. to relinquish it, and to follow a cow of a certain kind which he should meet, and build a city where it should lie down. He found the cow in Phocis, followed her to Boeotia, and built there the city of Thebes, about 1550 B.C. The myth of C., however, like other early Greek myths, abounds in contradictions, and it is wholly impossible to disentangle the historical facts from the meshes of fable in which they are imprisoned. To him is ascribed the introduction into Greece of an alphabet of 16 letters, derived from Egypt or Phoenicia, and the discovery of brass, or introduction of its use.

CADOUDAL, GEORGE, a distinguished leader in the Chouan or Royalist war in Brittany, was born near Auray, in Lower Brittany, where his father was a miller, in 1771. He was among the first to take up arms against the Republic, and soon acquired great influence over the peasants. Captured in 1794, he was sent as a prisoner to Brest, from which he soon made his escape, imprisonment having only increased his loyal ardour. Annoyed at the dissensions between the Vendean generals and the emigrant officers, and the disasters consequent thereon, C. organised an army in which no noble was permitted to command, and which Hoche, with all his great military talents, was unable to subdue or disperse. In 1799, C. was the soul of the conspiracy to overthrow the First Consul, and place a Bourbon on the throne; but the events of the 18th Brumaire disarranged the plans of the conspirators. Bonaparte recognised C.'s energy and force of character, and offered to make him a lieutenant-general in his army, which offer C. refused, as well as another of a pension of a hundred thousand francs, if he would only consent to remain quiet. Bonaparte attempted to arrest him, but he fled to England, where, in 1802, he conspired with Pichegru for the overthrow of the First Consul. With this design he went to Paris, but was arrested, condemned, and executed June 25, 1804. C. was a man of stern honesty and indomitable resolution. His mind was cast in the true mould; in my hands he would have done great things,' was Napoleon's estimate of him.

Hermes, as he was called by the Greeks, which was CADU'CEUS, the winged staff of Mercury, or supposed to give the god power to fly. The C. in the actual world was the staff or mace carried by heralds and ambassadors, from which circumstance, no doubt, it came to form one of the attributes of the messenger of the gods. Originally, it was simply an olive-branch, the stems of which were afterwards formed into snakes, in accordance with several poetical tales invented by the mythologists. One of these was to the effect that Mercury, having found two snakes fighting, divided them with his rod, and that thus they came to be used as an emblem of peace. Many miraculous virtues were ascribed to the caduceus. On the coinage of antiquity, the C. is often given to Mars, who holds it in the left hand, a spear being in his right, to shew how peace and war alternate. It is also seen in the hands of

Caduceus.

Hercules, Bacchus, Ceres, Venus, &c. Amongst the moderns, the C. is used as an emblem of commerce, over which Mercury was the presiding divinity. CECILIA (Lat. cæcus, blind), a genus of reptiles, formerly placed among serpents, on account of their form, although, in their anatomical structure,

SI

Two-banded Cæcilia.

peculiarities were observed allying them to Batrachians, with which they are now ranked, the important fact having been ascertained of their breathing by gills when young, and undergoing a metamorphosis. The body is almost cylindrical or worm-like, the head small, the eyes very small, and nearly hidden by the skin; in some species, indeed, imperfect or wanting, upon which account the name C. was given to them, and an attempt has been made to transfer to them the English name Blindworm, commonly given to the Anguis fragilis. The skin is smooth, viscous, and annularly wrinkled, appearing naked, although, upon dissection, minute scales are found disposed between its wrinkles, at least in some species. The vertebræ are articulated as in fishes and in some of the other lower Batrachians, not as in serpents, and the skull is united to the first vertebra by two tubercles. The ribs are imperfectly developed, and much too short to encircle the trunk. The original genus C. has been subdivided, now forming a family, Cæciliada. The species are inhabitants of warm climates, and of marshy or moist places.

CÆ CUM (Lat. cæcus, blind), a blind sac; that is, a sac or bag having only one opening, connected with the intestine of an animal. In man, there is only one C., very small, and apparently not performing any important function, situated at the extremity of the small intestine, where it terminates in the large intestine or colon. In many of the mammalia, however, and particularly in most of those which are herbivorous, it is comparatively large, and is found to secrete an acid fluid resembling the gastric juice. It therefore appears that, where the nature of the assimilatory process is such as to require the detention of the food for a considerable time, this provision is made for it, in order that digestion may be more completely accomplished. The C. is entirely wanting in some quadrupeds, as in bats, and the bear and weasel families. Birds have two cæca, which are generally long and capacious in those that are omnivorous or granivorous, and the position of which is the only circumstance that marks the division of the intestine into two parts, the small and the large intestine, or the ileum and the colon. In reptiles, a C. is of very rare occurrence. Fishes have none in the position occupied by those of quadrupeds and birds, but many of them have cæca attached to the intestine at its uppermost part, and very generally regarded as appendages of the stomach. The number of these cæca is, however, extremely various; sometimes there are only 2, and sometimes more than 100. The number is different even in very nearly allied species of the same family; thus, there are only 6 in the smelt, but 70 in the salmon; 24 in the herring, and 80 in the shad. In some fishes, as the cod, the cæca consist of large trunks ramified

into smaller ones.-The intestinal canal of some of the Infusoria is furnished throughout its whole length with numerous cæca, no other organ corresponding to a stomach appearing to exist.

CÆDMON, the first Anglo-Saxon writer of note who composed in his own language, and of whom there are any remains. The date of his birth is unknown, but his death occurred about 680 A. D. He was originally a cow-herd, attached to the monastery of Whitby, and, according to Bede, 'even more ignorant than the majority of his fellows, so that in the evenings, when the domestics assembled in the hall to recreate themselves with music after the labours of the day, Cadmon was frequently obliged to retire, in order to hide his shame when the harp was moved towards him.' One night, however, as he was sleeping in the stable-loft, a stranger declared his ignorance, but the stranger would take appeared to him, and commanded him to sing. C. no refusal, and imposed on the poor cow-herd the sublime task of hymning the glories of creation. Suddenly, a poetic inspiration seized him, and he began to pour forth verses. When he awoke from his dream, the words remained fast-rooted in his memory, and were recited by him to others with new confidence. The Abbess Hilda, and the learned men who were with her in the monastery, immediately declared that he had received the gift of song from Heaven. He was now educated, became a monk, and spent the rest of his life in composing poems on the Bible histories and on miscellaneous religious subjects, many of which have been preserved, and are altogether in bulk nearly equal to the half of Paradise Lost, to parts of which some of them bear a striking resemblance. Satan's Speech in Hell is characterised by a simple yet solemn influenced at some period of his life the more greatness of imagination, which may possibly have magnificent genius of Milton.

CÆLATU'RA. See CHASING.

CAEN, the chief town in the department of Calvados, France-formerly the capital of Lower Normandy-is situated on the left bank of the Orne, about 9 miles from its mouth in the English Channel, and 122 miles west-north-west of Paris. C. is built in the middle of a fertile plain; its streets are wide and clean, it has several fine squares, and many noble specimens of ancient Norman architecture. Among the best examples are the churches of St Etienne, founded by William the Conqueror, and which contained his monument, erected by William Rufus, and destroyed by the Huguenots in 1562; La Trinité, called also Abbaye aux Dames, founded by Matilda, wife of the Conqueror; St Nicholas, now used as a shot-factory; St Pierre and St Jean. The castle, founded by the Conqueror, and finished by Henry I. of England, was partially destroyed in 1793. Little trace of the ancient defences of the town now remains. There are several beautiful promenades in the city, which has manufactures of lace, blonde, crape, cutlery, cotton-yarn, &c.; and breweries, dyeworks, wax-bleaching, and ship-building yards. Its Angora gloves, made from the unwashed, undyed fur of Angora rabbits, which are reared in great numbers in the district, are celebrated. Quarries in the neighbourhood produce an excellent stone, called Caen Stone (q. v.). Trade is facilitated by a canal, which intersects the city, and by a maritime canal connecting the port with the sea, and admitting larger ships than can enter the Orne. Nothing is known of C. before the 9th century. It was a place of importance in 912, when it came into the possession of the Normans, under whom it increased rapidly. William the Conqueror and his queen made it their residence, and greatly