Macclesfield; and in the Archaeological Journal for 1856, it is stated that at Bolton-le-Moors, in Lancashire, the iron bridle was still in use, not many years since, for the correction of immorality: it was fixed in the female's mouth, and tied at the back of the head with ribands, and thus attired, the offender was paraded from the cross to the church steps, and back again.' Examples of the B. may be seen in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, in the National Museum of the Antiquaries of Scotland at Edinburgh, in the county hall at Forfar, in the Guildhall at Lichfield, in the town hall at Macclesfield, in the parish church of Walton in Surrey, and in St Mary's Church at St Andrews in Fife.-Brank was at one time a common name in Scotland for any sort of bridle. The word is supposed to be derived from the Teutonic pranghe, a bridle. In the Dutch Netherlands, the pillory was called pranghe, from the yoke or collar in which the neck of the culprit is held. An instrument resembling the B., in its simplest form, is said to have been in use among the Spaniards in the West Indies for the punishment of refractory slaves.

BRÂNTOME, PIERRE DE BOURDEILLES, SEIG NEUR DE, was born at Perigord, in Gascony, about 1527. He travelled in several countries in the capacity of chamberlain to Charles IX. and Henry III.; fought against the Huguenots (1562), in Barbary (1564), and went in 1566 to Malta, to fight against the Turks. After his return to the court of France, he retired into private life, and wrote his Mémoires, full of self-praise but very interesting, as they afford a lively portraiture of the manners and morality of his times, the women, in particular, being very severely handled. The style is charm ingly piquant, full of ingenious turns of expression, sudden sallies of wit, occasional flashes of eloquence, and withal so naïvely simple, that if the author cannot on account of the abundance of his gossip be reckoned a grave historian, he must needs be considered a most fascinating chronicler. B. died July 15, 1614. His complete works were published at the Hague (10 vols. 1740), and have been recently republished by Buchon in the Panthéon Littéraire (2 vols., Paris 1837).

BRASDOR'S OPERATION. It is stated in the article ANEURISM, that a cure is effected in that disease by successive layers of the fibrine of the blood being deposited in the aneurismal sac, and that surgeons bring about this desired end by tying the artery at some point between the heart and the aneurism. In some situations it is impossible to do this, and therefore it was suggested by Brasdor that the course of the blood should be impeded beyond the aneurismal sac. This has not been tested to any great extent, but most surgeons think favourably of it; and the same principle of aorta; o, artery, tied. can be carried out by pressure, without any cutting operation, as has been shewn by Mr Edwards of Edinburgh, who has succeeded in obliterating aneurisms at the root of the neck by pressure applied to the arteries beyond the tumour.

Brasdor's Operation. a, aneurismal sac; b, arch

of Lincoln, at one time Chancellor of the Univer. sity, and Sir Richard Sutton, Knight of Prestbury, in Cheshire. The original foundation was for a principal and twelve fellows. Eight fellowships were afterwards added by various benefactors, from 1522 to 1586. This college is also very rich in scholarships and exhibitions; more particularly the Hulme exhibitions, 15 in number, of value £120 per annum each, besides £35 to be spent in books, to be selected by the principal. The statutes of this college, which were issued in 1520, three years after the publication of Luther's theses, seem to have been framed by a person warmly attached to the Roman Catholic faith. They enjoin devotional exercises of a peculiarly popish character, such as repeating five times each day the Lord's Prayer in honour of the five wounds of the cruci fixion, of the angelic salutation in honour of the five joys of the blessed virgin, &c. These devotions are in some cases enforced by fines and whipping. The origin of the name of the college is obscure. Legends say that it was originally 'Brewing-house,' which became corrupted into the present appellation; but Anthony Wood tells us that the college was near finished out of the ruins of several hostels, the chief of which was Brasenose Hall, so called, without doubt, from such a sign, which also had, viz., Hawk or Hieron Hall, Elephant, was in ancient time over its door, as other halls Swan, or Bull Hall.' The former theory is sup ported by the fact, that B. has always been celebrated for the excellence of its beer; the latter is borne witness to by a nose in brass, curiously fashioned, which is now conspicuous over the great gateway. Till lately, all the fellowships were confined to natives of certain counties. The senior fellowships, owing to the appropriations of fines to the seniors, were very valuable, about £500 per annum; while the junior fellowships were about 80. By the commissioners appointed under 17 and 18 Vict. c. 81, many important alterations have been introduced. Five out of the twenty fellowships have been suppressed, one being elevated to four to the establishment of additional scholarships. the endowment of a professorship, the remaining All the remaining fellowships have been thrown open. The senior fellowships have been limited to £300 per annum; the junior raised to £150. Various oaths, previously taken by the fellows, committing them to statements which were untrue, and binding them to duties impossible to be performed, have been by the same authority abolished. B. presents to 33 benefices, besides 29 pieces of preferment vested in the trustees of the Hulme exhibitions, for behoof of the exhibitioners. Though considered what is commonly called a 'good college,' B. has never attained much distinction in the schools. In all probability this has been owing to the restrictions subject to which its endowments were so long administered. The number of names on the books, in 1860, is about 400, the number of resident undergraduates probably about 70.

BRASH. See WATER-BRASH.

BRASH, SHIVERS, BLAZE, and RUBBLE, are names given in different districts to layers of broken and angular fragments of rock. They occasionally form the basement bed of alluvial deposits. At Canonmills, and other places near Edinburgh, the boulder-clay rests on a bed of shivers composed of fragments of the subjacent bituminous shale.

BRASIDAS, the bravest and most energetic Spartan general in the earlier years of the Peloponnesian war. Having distinguished himself (B. C. 431)

by the courage with which he relieved the town of Methone from a hostile attack, he was made one of the chief-magistrates of Sparta. In 424 he relieved Megara; and in his expedition to Macedonia, in the same year, to aid the states which had thrown off their allegiance to Athens, he was completely successful. In 422, B., who could obtain no reinforcements from Sparta, had to encounter with his helots and mercenaries the flower of the Athenian army under Cleon. A battle took place at Amphipolis, in which both Cleon and B. were killed, but the army of the former was completely beaten. He was buried at Amphipolis, within the walls, and for long after his death his memory was honoured as that of a hero, by the celebration of yearly sacrifices and games. The Greek writers speak highly of Brasidas. Thucydides notices his eloquence, unusual in a Spartan, his justice, liberality, and wisdom, while Plato compares him to Achilles; but circumstances are not wanting to shew that he was as much endowed with Spartan duplicity as with Spartan courage.

BRASS is an alloy of copper and zinc, largely used for household furnishings, certain parts of machinery, and other ornamental and useful articles. Technically, the term B. is extended so as to include compounds of copper and tin, as in brass-ordnance, the brasses or bearings of machinery, &c.; but such alloys of copper and tin, though styled hard B., are more strictly varieties of BRONZE (q. v.), and the present notice will be confined to the alloys of copper and zinc, or yellow brass. In ancient history, biblical and profane, frequent allusions are made to the employment of B. in the construction of musical instruments, vessels, implements, ornaments, and even gates; but as no mention is made of its mode of manufacture, or even of its composition, it is doubtful if the B. of the ancients was composed of copper and zinc. In the manufacture of B. on the large scale, two parts by weight of copper to one part of zinc are used, the zinc being one-half the weight of the copper; but alloys are made for particular purposes with less or greater proportions of zinc. Thus, where a material of more than ordinary tenacity is required, the zinc is reduced to one-fourth the weight of the copper; and where an alloy of a hard and brittle nature, possessing little resisting power, is wished for, the zinc is increased to an amount equal with the copper, or greater. In the manufacture_ of B., either of two processes may be followed. The direct method is to fuse the zinc in a crucible, and gradually add the copper in pieces. But this process is attended with disadvantage, owing to the volatile and oxidisable nature of zinc. The indirect method of forming B. is that which is generally followed in England and elsewhere, and consists in heating in crucibles or pots a mixture of calamine (carbonate of zinc, ZnOCO,), charcoal, and thin pieces of scrap or grain copper. The calamine (q. v.) is generally first calcined or roasted, so as to expel any traces of sulphur, then mixed with one-fourth of its weight of charcoal, and this mixture introduced into the crucible, after which the metallic copper is diffused through the mixture by being beaten in with hammers or mallets. The proportions employed are 3 parts of the mixture of calamine and charcoal to 2 parts of copper; and when introduced into a furnace, and subjected for 5 to 24 hours to the action of a white heat, the charcoal reduces the calamine and separates the zinc, which, combining with the copper, forms 3 parts of B., containing about 2 of copper to

1 of zinc.

For ordinary purposes, B. is first cast into plates of about 100 lbs. weight, and to inch thick, which can be readily broken up, remelted, and cast

in a mould of any desirable shape or size. The crude casting so obtained is generally screwed to a turning-lathe, and turned and bored into the required form with iron tools. B. is very largely employed in the construction of door-handles, window-shutter knobs, &c.; and since the introduction of gas, though the brazen candlesticks have almost ceased to exist in towns, yet the immense number of stop. cocks, and brass-pendants and brackets required, has given a considerable impetus to the brass manufacture. The proportion of copper and zinc in the alloys resembling B., and which are known as gilding metal, Mannheim gold, pinchbeck, bath metal, Bristol brass, Muntz sheathing metal, spelter solder, and Mosaic gold, have already been noticed under ALLOY (q. v.).

BRA'SSARTS, the name of the pieces which, in plate-armour, protected the upper part of the arms, and united the shoulder and elbow pieces. Brachiale of the arm only was shielded, the pieces were called

was the ancient name for brassarts. When the front

demi-brassarts.

BRASSES (sepulchral), large plates of brass, or of the mixed metal called latten or laton, inlaid on slabs of stone, and usually forming part of the pavement of a church. The figure of the person intended to be commemorated was generally represented either by the form of the brass itself, or by lines engraven on it. Such, however, was not always the case, an ornamented or foliated cross, with other sacred emblems, being frequently substituted for the figure. Nor was the practice of imbedding them in the pavement uniform, as we sometimes find them elevated on what were called altar-tombs. It has been ascertained that the incised lines on these B. were originally filled up with some black resinous substance, and that in the case of armorial decorations, and the like, the field or background was often cut out by the chisel, and filled up with some species of coarse enamel, by which means the appropriate tinctures were produced. In England, the brass was usually of the form of the figure, the polished slab forming the ground, and the ornaments, arms, inscription, &c., were also inserted each as a separate piece. On the continent, where the metal was more abundant, the B. were one long unbroken surface, formed of plates soldered together, on which were engraved all the objects represented, the portions of the plate not so occupied being ornamented by elaborate flower-work. B. are known to have been used for monumental purposes from a very early period, though there are no existing traces of them in England previous to the middle of the 13th century. There is reason to think, that if not imported from France, they were at first executed by French artists. Latterly, the art took root in England, and English B., like English architecture, acquired a distinctive national character. The oldest complete specimen in England is that on the monument of Sir John d'Aubernoun, at Stoke Dabernon. The knight died in 1277, and it is probable that the brass was executed shortly after that date. Next in antiquity are those of Sir Roger de Trumpington, who died in 1289, and of Sir Richard de Buslingthorpe, 1290; the former at Trumpington in Cambridgeshire, the latter at Buslingthorpe in Lincolnshire. In addition to the interest which they possess from their age, these B. are remarkable as being still unsurpassed in the beauty of the workmanship and the spirit of the design. As regards the earliest English B., it is further worthy of note that they are so similar, both in design and execution, as to lead to the conjecture that they are the work of one artist; whilst from their differing in many respects from the B. which were executed

Inlaid brass Monument of Eleanor Bohun, Duchess of Gloucester. About 1400.

mark is affixed by a stamp-a fact which has been regarded as a proof that his craft had attained to some importance, and that his services were pretty frequently called into requisition. But in this case, as in every other, with one exception, the name of the artist has perished. The exceptional case is that of the brass which once covered the tomb of Bishop Philip, in the church of the Jacobins at Evreux, in Normandy, where the inscription ended with the words, Guillaume de Plalli me fecit. Many of the B. executed in England in the 14th c. are probably Flemish; and in the churches at Bruges some exist which appear to be by the same hand with others which are found in England. There can be little question, indeed, that for this, as for most of the other departments of the arts, which were afterwards successfully cultivated in England, we were indebted to continental artists. Nor will it surprise those who know the results of recent archæological investigations in similar subjects, to learn that the artists of France and Flanders in their turn were debtors to those of the worn-out empire of the East. As in painting, sculpture, and architecture itself, so in the art of working in brass, the sparks of antique genius which smouldered in Byzantium were the means of kindling those

Among the knightly brasses of the graves, And by the cold hic jacets of the dead, in ad has grown to something like a passion of late, and there are few subjects which have been more carefully illustrated than that of sepulchral brasses. References to most of the leading works, too numerous to be mentioned here, will be found in Parker's Glossary of Architecture, in an article in which their results have been carefully condensed. Of modern B., the most remarkable is that in the Cathedral at Cologne, engraved in 1837, as a monument to the late archbishop.

BRASSICA, a genus of plants of the natural order Cruciferæ (q. v.), distinguished by a round and tapering 2-valved pod (silique), of which the valves have each only one straight dorsal rib and no lateral veins, the seeds globose, in one row in each valve, and the cotyledons (q. v.) conduplicate (folded laterally). The species are chiefly natives of the temperate and colder regions of the old world; several are British plants. A number of species are very extensively cultivated, both in fields and gardens, and are of great importance in an economical point of view, particularly the CABBAGE (q. v.), of which Kale, Borecole, Colewort, and different kinds of Greens, Savoy, Cauliflower, Broccoli, Brussels Sprouts, and Kohl Rabi are varieties; TURNIP (q. v.); RAPE (q. v.) (Colza, Cole-seed) and NAVEW (q. v.). Among the British species is one, called Isle of Man Cabbage, or Wallflower Cabbage (B. monensis), which differs from all these, and in some measure departs from the strict generic character, in having the valves of the pod 3-nerved, and one or two seeds in its beak. It has deeply pinnatifid leaves. It is found on the sandy shores of the west of Scotland, the Isle of Man, the north of Ireland, &c. Sheep and oxen are very fond of it, and it has been suggested that it might be profitably cultivated for feeding cattle. Its peculiar adaptation to sandy soils ought to recommend it to attention.

BRAUN, AUG. EMIL., an eminent archæologist, was born 19th of April 1809, at Gotha, in Germany. He studied at Göttingen and Munich, where he made the friendship of his teachers, Schelling and Gerhard; with the latter of these he went to Rome in 1833, and in a short time was made librarian, and subsequently secretary, to the Archeological Institute. He died at Rome, 12th September 1856. B. has written many valuable works on art in German, Italian, and even English. Among these may be mentioned, Il Giudizio di Paride (Paris, 1838), Kunstvorstellungen des geflügelten Dionysus (Munich, 1839), Griechische Mythologie (Hamburg and Gotha, 1850), Griechische Götterlehre (Gotha, 1851-1855), Vorschule der Kunstmythologie (Gotha, 1854, with 100 copperplate engravings), translated into English by Mr Grant; and an admirable guide-book, Die Ruinen und Museen Roms (Brunswick, 1854), translated into English, 1855. B. also executed numerous electrotype copies of ancient works of art.

BRAUNSBERG, a walled town of East Prussia, in the government of Königsberg, about 35 miles south-west of the city of that name. It is situated on the Passarage, which divides the town into two parts; and has manufactures of woollen and linen, and a considerable trade in yarn, grain, ship-timber, &c. Pop. 8360.

BRAUWER, or BROUWER, ADRIAN, a painter of the Flemish school, was born at Oudenarde (or as others say, at Haarlem) in 1608. He was apprenticed to the well-known artist Franz Hals, who made profitable use of his pupil's great talents;

keeping him in a garret like a prisoner, and making him work almost night and day, in painting small pictures, which Hals sold at very good prices. By the advice of a fellow-pupil, Adrian Van Ostade, young B. ran away from his hard taskmaster, and going to Amsterdam found, to his own astonishment, himself famous as a painter. He now

worked for himself, and might soon have made a fortune; but his intemperance was so extreme, that, it is said, he would never apply himself to painting, while he could have credit or be supplied with liquor at a tavern. During the war in the Netherlands he went to Antwerp, where he was seized as a spy, and taken to the citadel. Here, to prove himself a painter, he executed a sketch of the guards who had him in their custody. This picture was shewn to Rubens, who immediately exclaimed That is the work of Brauwer! no other artist could treat the subject in that style.' B. was liberated through the interposition of Rubens, who gave him a lodging, supplied him with clothing and food, and in every way acted as a generous friend. But the sole return for all this kindness was, that B. secretly fled from the house of his patron, in order to renew his career of low dissipation. After visiting Paris, and failing to find work, he returned to Antwerp, where he died in the hospital (1640),

and was interred, at the cost of Rubens, in the Carmelites' Church. All B.'s paintings are marked by power and harmony of colouring, and clearness of chiaroscuro. They are pervaded by a jovial humour, and betray the favourite haunts and associations of the painter.

BRA'VI, were those individuals in Italy, but especially in Venice, who undertook to perform any dangerous deeds for money. It is now employed chiefly to designate hired assassins. The Italians also gave the name of B. to those fanatics in the Turkish army, who, after maddening themselves by opium, rushed upon the ranks of the enemy, and so met death.

BRAVO, Excellent!' Well-done!' an Italian exclamation of praise, the superlative form of which is Bravissimo! It is commonly used in England without distinction of number or gender; but the Italians say bravo! to a male singer or actor, brava! to a lady, and bravi! to a company of actors or singers. BRA'VO DEL NO'RTÉ, or RIO GRANDE, the largest river in the Gulf of Mexico next to the Mississippi. It is politically important, as being throughout its whole course the boundary between Texas and Mexico; while physically its mouth may perhaps be regarded as that point on the coast where Central America, in its geographical aspect, begins to taper itself off towards the south. It rises in the Rocky Mountains, near lat. 38° N., and long. 106° 30′ W.; and after a course of 1800 miles in a generally south-east direction, it enters the sea near fat. 25° Ñ., and long. 97° W. The commercial value of the river is not great, for, besides being for the most part very shallow, it is here and there beset by rapids and sand-bars. Small steamers, however, have got up as far as Kingsbury's Rapids, about one-fourth of the entire length of the stream.

́ BRAVOU'RA, an Italian word, in music applied to a composition as well as style of performance. As a composition, the B. is an air or song, with many difficult passages and divisions of notes, requiring great spirit and volubility of execution. The intention of merely astonishing by execution has brought this species of composition into undeserved discredit. The B. style first came from the Neapolitan school. Rossini, Bellini, &c., united the B. with the cantabile style; and instead of leaving

the embellishments to the taste of the singer, wrote the whole of the notes in the music. The compositions of Mozart, Beethoven, &c., give abundant proofs of how they united true artistic merit with the B. style.

Other

BRAWLING IN CHURCHES, in the law of This offence may generally be described as quarrelEngland, is an offence against the public peace. ling or creating a disturbance in a church; therefore, mere quarrelsome words, which are neither an affray nor an offence in any other place, are penal here. It was enacted by 5 and 6 Edw. VI. c. 4, s. 3, that if any person shall, by words only, quarrel, chide, or brawl in a church or churchyard, the ordinary shall suspend him, if a layman, and if a clerk in orders, from the ministration ab ingressu ecclesia (from entering the church); of his office during pleasure. And if any person in such church or churchyard proceed to smite or lay violent hands upon another, he shall be excommunicated ipso facto; or if he strike him with a weapon, or draw any weapon with intent to strike, he shall, besides excommunication, have one of his ears cut off, or having no ears, be branded with the letter 'F' in his cheek. But this portion of the act regulations respecting the disturbance of a conwas repealed by the 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, s. 1. gregation, or molestation of a clergyman during the celebration of divine service, will be found in the 1 Mary, c. 3, passed in the year 1553, which, is still held to be the law for the protection of the although of Roman Catholic origin and application, Protestant Established Church. It enacts (section 2) that if any person or persons shall willingly and of purpose, by overt word or deed, molest or disquiet any preacher in any sermon, preaching, or collation, that he shall make in any church, chapel, churchyard, or in any other place or places, used or appointed to be preached in; or (section 3) if any person or persons shall molest a priest preparing or celebrating mass, or other such divine service, sacraments, or sacramentals as was most commonly frequented and used in the last year of the reign of the late sovereign lord, King Henry VIII., or that at any time hereafter shall be allowed, set forth, or authorised by the queen's majesty;' or shall abuse the liable to be committed to gaol, there to remain withblessed sacrament-such person or persons shall be out bail or mainprize for the space of three months then next ensuing; and further, to the next quartersessions, at which the persons so offending shall only be delivered and discharged out of prison upon sufficient sureties for their good behaviour during one whole year. The act contains other regulations for the protection of the ministrations of the church, and it saves the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical law.

By another act, 1 Will. and Mary, c. 18, s. 18, passed in 1688, it is provided that if any person or persons shall disquiet or disturb any cathedral or parish church, chapel, or other congregation, or misuse any preacher or teacher, such person or persons may be committed to prison, and on conviction, be fined £20.

It remains to be added, that reviling church ordinances subjects to fine and imprisonment-and profaning the Christian religion, and depraving the Book of Common Prayer, are also subjects of penal 9 and 10 Will. III. c. 32. legislation. See on this subject 1 Eliz. c. 2, and the See also articles on BLASPHEMY and OFFENCES AGAINST RELIGION, in which latter the Scotch law on the subject of this

article will be found stated.

BRAWN, a preparation of meat made from the head and belly-piece of a young pig, with the addition