a much wider and more comprehensive criterion was established, all who could read, whether of the clergy or laity-a mark of great learning in those days-and therefore capable of becoming clerks, being allowed the privilege. But laymen could only claim it once, and upon so doing, were burned on the hand, and discharged; to be again tried, however, by the bishop, whose investigation usually resulted in an acquittal, which, although the offender had been previously convicted by his country, or perhaps by his own confession, had the effect of restoring him to his liberty, his credit, and his property-in fact, the episcopal acquittal so entirely whitewashed him, that in the eye of the law he became a new and innocent person. The mode in which the test of reading was applied was as follows: On conviction, the felon demanded his clergy, whereupon a book (commonly a psalter) was put into his hand, which he was required to read, when the judge demanded of the bishop's commissary, who was present, Legit ut clericus? and upon the answer to this question depended the convict's fate: if it were simply legit, the prisoner was burned on the hand, and discharged; but if non legit, he suffered the punishment due to his offence. But by 5 Anne, c. 6, the B. of C. was extended to all persons convicted of clergyable offences, whether they could read or not; and by the same statute and several subsequent ones, instead of burning on the hand, a discretionary power was given to the judge to inflict a pecuniary fine or imprisonment. But all further attempts to modify and improve the law on this subject proving impracticable, the B. of C. was at last totally abolished, by the 7 and 8 Geo. IV. c. 28; and now by the 4 and 5 Vict. c. 22, the same is the law with regard to the peers.

This privilege had never any existence or legal meaning in Scotland; and a learned writer on the law of that country complains of its introduction into a statute applicable to Scotland (Hutchison's Justice of the Peace in Scotland, vol. ii., p. 191). See on the subject of this article generally, Kerr's Blackstone, vol. iv., p. 452; Hale's Pleas of the Crown, part 2, c. 45; and Reeves's History of the English Law.

BENEFIT OF INVENTORY, in the Scotch law, was a legal privilege whereby an heir secured himself against unlimited liability for his ancestor, by giving up, within the annus deliberandi (q. v.), an inventory of his heritage or real estate, to the extent of which, and no further, was the heir liable. But the annus deliberandi is now abolished, and the privilege in question is of the less consequence, seeing that by the 10 and 11 Vict. c. 47, ss. 23 and 25, decrees of service infer only a limited representation of a deceased party, and the heir is only liable to the extent of the inheritance descending to him. See ANNUS DELIBERANDI, HEIR, INHERITANCE, DEBT, and MORTGAGE.

BENEKE, FREDERIC EDUARD, professor of philosophy in Berlin, was born in that city in 1798, and studied theology and philosophy, first at Halle, and then at Berlin. In 1820, he commenced lecturing in the latter university, but his lectures were soon interdicted by the minister Altenstein, as his philosophical views were quite opposed to those of Hegel. After a few years his lectures were again allowed, and on Hegel's death, in 1832, he was appointed extraordinary professor of philosophy. In March 1854, B. disappeared suddenly from his residence, and nothing more was heard of him until June 1856, when his body was found in the canal at Charlotteburg in the same place in which he had sought his death. B. has more affinity with British thinkers than any other German philosopher. He

holds that the only possible foundation for philosophy lies in a strict adherence to the facts of our consciousness. His system of psychology is therefore what the Germans call 'empirical, and his method is the Baconian as pursued in natural science. Of his numerous writings may be mentioned Psychologische Skizzen (2 vols. 1825-1827); Lehrbuch der Psychologie als Naturwissenschaft (Text-book of Psychology as a Natural Science, 2d ed. 1845); System der Logik (2 vols. 1842); Erziehungs-und-Unterrichtslehre (A Treatise on Education, 1842). The best German educationists recommend B.'s psychology as more capable of practical application than the prevailing systems of Germany.

Southern Italy, capital of the papal delegation of BENEVENTO (ancient Beneventum), a city of the same name, but situated within the kingdom of Naples. It occupies the site of the ancient city, out of the materials of which it is entirely built, on the declivity of a hill, near the confluence of the Calore B. is about two miles in circumference, is surand Sabato, about 32 miles north-east of Naples. rounded by walls, has a citadel, a fine old cathedral, erected to the honour of the Emperor Trajan, by some noteworthy churches, and a magnificent arch, the senate, 114 A. D., which, with the single exception of that of Ancona, is the best preserved specimen of Roman architecture in Italy. It is an archiepiscopal see, and has a population of about 17,000. B. is a place of very great antiquity. Some writers attribute its origin to Diomed, and in the boar adorned for sacrifice, said to be the gift of the cathedral is a bas-relief representing the Calydonian Greek hero himself. Others give the credit of its origin to Auson, a son of Ulysses and Circe. It was, however, in the possession of the Samnites, when history first takes notice of it, and it appears to have been captured from them by the Romans, some time It was certainly in during the third Samnite war. the hands of the Romans 274 B.C., who changed its name from Maleventum to Beneventum, six years later, and made it a Roman colony. The Carthaginians under Hanno were twice decisively defeated in the immediate neighbourhood, during the second Punic war. It rapidly rose to a place of importance under the Roman empire, and was visited at various times by several of the emperors.

Under the Lombards, who conquered it in the 6th c., B. continued to flourish, and became the capital of a duchy which included nearly the half of the present kingdom of Naples. In the 9th c. the duchy was separated into three states-B., Salerno, and Čapua. În 1077, the whole was taken possession of by the Normans, excepting the town and its present delegation, which had previously (1053) been presented to the pope, by the Emperor Henry III. During the 11th and 12th centuries, four councils were held at the city of Benevento. remained under the direct dominion of the popes, Since that time, with some slight intervals, it has who govern it through a resident cardinal with the title of Legate. In 1806, it was erected into a Prince of B.; but it was restored to the pope at the principality by Napoleon, who made Talleyrand peace of 1815. At the revolution of 1848-1849, B. remained faithful to the pope.

BENEVOLENCE, in the history of the law of England, was a species of forced loan, arbitrarily levied by the kings in violation of Magna Charta, and in consequence of which it was made an article in the Petition of Rights, 3 Car. I., that no man shall be compelled to yield any gift, loan, or B., tax, or such like charge, without common consent by act of parliament; and by the statute

1 Will. and Mary, st. 2, c. 2, it is declared, that levying money for or to the use of the crown, by pretence of prerogative, without grant of parlia ment, or for longer time, or in other manner than the same is or shall be so granted, is illegal. See Hallam's Constitutional History of England, and 1 Stephen's Com., p. 167.

BENGA'L, a term used in three distinct senses-as presidency, sub-presidency, and province, in Hindustan. In 1765, the soubah or viceroyalty of this name was, along with Bahar and part of Orissa, ceded by the Great Mogul, virtually in full sovereignty, to the English East India Company. As a natural consequence of this acquisition of territory, the presidency of Calcutta, which had been separated from that of Madras in 1707, came to be styled the presidency of Bengal. Moreover, in 1773, this, the youngest of the three distinct governments of British India, was elevated above both its older rivals by an act of parliament, which declared its immediate ruler to be ex officio the governor-general of the whole of the Company's dominions. With its commanding position on and around the delta of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, B., as a presidency, grew almost as uninterruptedly as a tree, alike to the north-west and to the south-east-far beyond the basins of its own mighty rivers. Within less than 90 years, it had overleaped, without a break in its continuity, at once the Irrawaddy and the Indus. Benares in the one direction, was the first considerable increment, having been absorbed in 1775; while the last addition of importanceunless one should except Oude, which, however, had really become British in 1801-was Pegu, in the other direction, the Burmese war of 1852 filling up the gap on the coast which that of 1826 had still left between Assam and Aracan on the north, and Tenasserim on the south. From Tenasserim to the Punjab inclusive, B., as a presidency, embraced about 29 of long., and about 21° of lat. Further, it comprised, to the south-east, the detached settlements of Penang, Malacca, and Singapore; while to the north-west it might, for a time at least, have claimed Afghanistan. The whole of this vast tract was, either directly or indirectly, under the immediate rule of the governor-general, advised, and in some cases, controlled, by a council of 5 members, of whom one was the commander-in-chief, and at least one other was not to be a Company's servant.

Recently, however, the presidency of B., having proved to be too extensive for a consolidated administration, has been divided into three portions -one portion remaining under the governor-general, and two being assigned to subordinate functionaries, the lieutenant-governors respectively of The North-western Provinces,' and of Bengal.' The first portion, under the direct sway of the governorgeneral, consists of the Punjab (q. v.); the CisSutlej states, 4 in number-Oude, Nagpoor, Pegu, Tenasserim; and the 3 detached settlements already mentioned in and near the Straits of Malacca. The two other portions, occupying, between them, the entire space from Pegu to the Cis-Sutlej states, meet near the confluence of the Gogra and the Ganges, Patna being situated in 'Bengal,' and Benares in "The North-western Provinces.' The western section contains the districts of Delhi, Meerut, Allygurh, Rohilcund, Bareilly, Shahjehanpoor, Bijnour, Agra, Furruckabad, Allahabad, Cawnpore, Futtehpoor, Benares, Goruckpore, Azimghur, Jounpoor, Mirzapore, Ghazeepore, &c.; and the eastern section contains the districts of Jessore, Burdwan, Bancorah, Bhagulpore, Monghir, Cuttack, Balasore, Midnapore, Moorshedabad, Rungpoor, Dacca, Silhet, Patna, Bahar, Chittagong, the Sunderbunds, Assam, Aracan, &c. According to official returns of 1857,

Thus, without reckoning the nominally independent principalities, the three grand divisions of B., as a presidency, present six times the area, and nearly five times the population of Great Britain. In their mutual relations, these three grand divisions still form one and the same presidency of Bengal, as distinguished from the presidencies of Madras and Bombay. They are all, more or less directly, subject to one and the same central authorityan authority which the recent transfer of our eastern empire does not appear, at least in express terms, to have disturbed or modified. They possess also one and the same military organisation to overawe or protect them. Of that military organisation the form and extent are at present under discussion, for the B. native army virtually committed suicide in the summer of 1857. Other features, whether local or universal, of Bengal, either as a presidency or as a sub-presidency, will fall naturally under either more general or less general heads. Bengal Proper alone, the ancient soubah or the modern province, now claims more special notice.

B. Proper, then, is bounded on the N. by Nepaul, Sikim, and Bhotan; on the E. by Assam; on the S. by the Bay of Bengal; on the S.W. by Orissa and Gundwana; and on the W. by Bahar. Taking its widest range, it measures about 350 miles from west to east, by an average of about 300 from south to north, and covers an area, in round numbers, of 100,000 square miles. It embraces about 30 administrative districts; and its population may be stated at 26 millions. Thus, Bengal Proper differs but little, in extent and population, from Great Britain, while of its own sub-presidency, it comprises nearly one-half of the area, and more than threefifths of the population. Next to Calcutta, the cities of note are Moorshedabad, Dacca, Burdwan, Purneah, Hoogly, Midnapore, Rajmahal, Bancorah, Berhampore, &c. In B. Proper, within the district of Hoogly, there stands also the French settlement of Chandernagore, containing somewhat less than 4 square miles, with a population of 32,670. The Hoogly district, moreover, contained, at one time, two other dependencies of foreign countries, the Dutch Chinsura, and the Danish Serampore, respectively ceded to England in 1824 and 1845. B. Proper, as a whole, may be regarded as almost a dead level. It is only on the south-west frontier that it shews any hill-country, for towards the north it is said nowhere to reach even a single spur of the Himalaya. The principal rivers are the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, the former intersecting the country diagonally from northwest to south-east, and the latter crossing its more easterly portion in a direction to the west of south. During their lower courses, these main channels are so interlaced together as to form perhaps the most singular net-work of waters in the world; and their first point of confluence is said to be Jaffergunge-the head also of tide-water—in lat. 23° 52′ N., and long. 89° 45' E., at a distance of 160 miles from the sea. But the thousand-isled delta commences 120 miles further up the Ganges, where the highest offset, the Bhagirathi, breaks off to the right, afterwards to join a similar offset, the

BENGA'L ARMY. A succinct account of the military forces in India, European and native, will be found under EAST INDIA ARMY; including a notice of the changes made consequent on the transfer of the Company's powers to the crown, in 1858.

BENGA'L LIGHT, BLUE LIGHT, or BENGAL FIRE, is a brilliant signal-light used at sea during shipwreck, and in ordinary pyrotechny for illuminating a district of country. It is prepared from nitre, sulphur, and the tersulphuret of antimony. The materials are reduced to fine powder, thoroughly dried, and intimately mixed in the following proportions by weight: nitre, 6; sulphur, 2; tersul phuret of antimony, 1. The mixture constitutes the B. L., and when kindled by a red-hot coal, red-hot iron, or flame, immediately bursts into rapid and vivid combustion, evolving a brilliant, penetrating, but mellow light, which, during the darkness of night, readily overcomes the gloom for a considerable space. As the fumes evolved during the combustion of the B. L. contain an oxide of antimony, and are poisonous, the light cannot be used with safety in rooms or enclosed spaces.

BENGALI' LANGUAGE. See HINDUSTAN.

BENGA'ZI, a seaport town of Barca, North Africa, finely situated on the east coast of the Gulf of Sidra, in lat. 32° 6' N., and long. 20 2 E. It has a population of about 2500, who carry on a trade with Malta and Barbary in oxen, sheep, wool, and corn. It has a castle, the residence of a bey, who governs it for the pasha of Tripoli. Its harbour is rapidly filling up with sand. B. is chiefly interesting to the traveller, as having been the site of the ancient city of Hesperis, in the neighbourhood of which were several singularly luxuriant dells of large extent, enclosed within steep rocks rising to the height of 60 or 70 feet. These were supposed to answer well the description of the fabled Gardens of the Hesperides. It first rose to importance under Ptolemy III., who called it Berenice, in honour of his wife. It had then a large population, chiefly of Jews. Justinian afterwards fortified it, and adorned

it with baths.

BENGEL, JOHANN ALBRECHT, a distinguished German theologian and commentator, whose writings have exercised considerable influence in England, was born at Winnenden, in Würtemberg, June 24, 1687. His early life was chequered by many vicissitudes. After completing his theological curriculum in 1707, he became curate of Metzingen; a year after, he was appointed theological tutor at Tübingen. Later in life, he held several high offices; among others, that of Consistorial councillor and prelate of Alpirsbach, in Würtemberg, where he died 2d December 1752. He was the first Protestant author who treated the exegesis of the New Testament in a thoroughly critical and judicious style. He did good service also in the rectification of the text of the Bible, and in paving the way for classifying the sacred manuscripts into families. The short notes in his Gnomon Novi Testamenti (Tübingen, 1742) have been generally regarded as valuable, and translated into various languages. They were especially made use of by John Wesley, in his Notes on the New Testament, which forms one of the standards of Wesleyan Methodism. Indeed Wesley's work may be regarded as little more than an abridged translation from Bengel. An Exposition of the Revelation of St John (Stuttgard, 1740), and a chronological work-the Ordo Temporum a Principio per Periodos Economia Divina Historicus atque Propheticus (Tübingen, 1741), gained for B., in his time, a great reputation; some regarding him as an inspired prophet, but the majority as a visionary. In these works he calculated, on the basis he

supposed to be laid down in the Apocalypse, that the world would endure for the space of 7777 years; and that the breaking loose and the binding of Satan' would take place in the summer of 1836.

BENGUE'LA, a country of Western Africa, the limits of which are not very definitely fixed. It is usually represented as lying between lat. 9° and 16° S., and long. 12° and 17° E. The river Coanza separates it from Angola on the N., the mountains behind Cape Negro bound it on the S., and the Atlantic Ocean on the W. Its surface is generally mountainous, rising from the coast-line inland, in a series of terraces; several important rivers flow through it in a north-west direction to the Atlantic. These rivers have numerous affluents, and water is everywhere so plentiful, that it may be found by digging two feet beneath the surface. Vegetation of the most luxuriant and varied description is the consequence of this humidity. The fruit-trees, both of tropical and subtropical climates, succeed extremely well. The inhabitants, however, are too ignorant or indolent to take advantage of the productiveness of the soil. Animals of all kinds common to Western Africa abound in B., both on land and in water. Peacocks are said to be accounted sacred in B., and kept tame about the graves of the great chiefs. Sulphur, copper, and petroleum are found in the mountains, and also gold and silver in small quantities. The coast is unusually inhabited by a variety of petty tribes, some of which unhealthy, but the interior is more salubrious. B. is are cannibals, and barbarous beyond even the barbarism of Africa. As might be anticipated, religion exists only in the form of Fetichism. The Portuguese claim B., but they exercise no real power in the

interior.

BENGUE'LA, ST PHILIP DE, the Portuguese capital of the above region, on the Atlantic, near the mouth of the river Catumbella. Lat. 12° 33′ S., long. 13° 25′ E. It is very unhealthy; so inimical to European life, indeed, that the Portuguese affirm their countrywomen could not live three months in it. It has a miserable appearance, being built of half-baked bricks, and made ruinous-like by a practice that prevails of never repairing the houses, which, whenever they exhibit symptoms of decay, Pop. 3000, chiefly free blacks or slaves. It was a are abandoned for new ones erected in the vicinity. great slave-station at one time, exporting annually 20,000 slaves. The trade has fallen off greatly of late years. The town was, some time ago, invaded by a herd of thirsty elephants in quest of water, and almost entirely destroyed.

BENI', a river of South America, in the state of Bolivia, formed by the junction of all the streams that rush down from the Eastern Andes between 14° and 18° S. lat. Flowing through the province of Moxos, it joins the Mamore to form the Madeira, one of the largest affluents of the Amazon.

BENICA'RLO, a poor, dirty, walled town of Spain, in the province of Valencia. Pop. 6000, who manufacture full-bodied' wines for export to Bordeaux, where they are used in cooking clarets for the English market. Bad brandy is also manufac tured here; and the town being situated on the Mediterranean, a little fishing is carried on.

BE'NI-HA'SSAN, a village of Upper Egypt, on the east bank of the Nile, in lat. 27 53′ N., and long. 30° 55′ E. The place is remarkable for the numerous grottos in its vicinity, which are among the most interesting in Egypt. These catacombs are excavated in the calcareous bank-apparently, at one time, washed by the Nile, now flowing further west -in which the low hills that rise in this part of the valley terminate. The catacombs are about thirty

in number, and are supposed to have been used as sepulchres by the principal inhabitants of Hermopolis, a city that stood on the opposite side of the river. Some of the grottos consist of three apartments, the largest of which is 60 by 40 feet; and pillars are cut out of the rock in imitation of the columns that support the roofs of buildings. These shafts are polygons of sixteen sides, fluted except on the inner side, which is left smooth for a line of hieroglyphics. They are usually about 16 feet high, and from 3 to 5 feet in diameter at the base. The sides of the caverns are covered with paintings representing the industrial pursuits, sports, pastimes, &c., of the ancient Egyptians. The paintings, though not so artistic as those in the Theban catacombs, are of earlier date, and throw much curious light on the manners and customs of the people.

BE'NI-ISGUE'N, a large town in the interior of Algeria, surrounded by a rampart, flanked with towers, and said to be nearly as populous as Algiers. It has some trade in grain.

BE'NI-I'SRAEL (Sons of Israel), a remarkable race in the west of India, who preserve a tradition of Jewish descent, and have from time immemorial acknowledged the law of Moses, although in many respects conforming to the idolatry of the Hindus by whom they are surrounded. Dr Wilson estimates their whole number at not much more than 5000. Their original settlement was at Navagaum, about 30 miles from Bombay, where they were protected by the native princes; they have spread through the maritime parts of the Konkan, and some of them are now to be found in Bombay itself. Their features exhibit a resemblance to those of the Arabian Jews. Until recently, they were ignorant even of the names of many of the books of the Old Testament; and it was not without hesitation that they consented to receive those of the later prophets. Dr Wilson supposes them to be a remnant of the ten tribes, and to have settled in India long before the Jews of Cochin. See COCHIN (HINDUSTAN). They reject the name of Jews, and deem its application to them a reproach. They have no MS. of the law in their synagogues. Their communities are governed by a mukadam, or head-man of their own number; and their religious assemblies are presided over by a kazi, who also performs circumcision and other rites.

BENI'N, a state in Guinea, Africa, dependent on the kingdom of Ashantee, situated in 4-9° N. lat, and 4-8° E. long. It takes its name from the western arm of the Niger-formerly supposed to be a main river, and styled Benin or Formosawhich leaves the Niger at Kirii, and, after a course of about 115 miles, forms an embouchure two miles wide. The country of B. is bounded on the N.E. and the E. by the Niger; on the S. by the Bay of Benin, into which Cape Formosa is projected; on the W. by Dahomey; and on the N.W. by Yariba. The coast is indented by numerous estuaries, and is generally level; but the land gradually rises towards the north, until it reaches an elevation of 2500 feet in the Kong Mountains. The soil is very fertile, producing rice, yams, palms, sugar, &c. The animals are the same as those in other states of Guinea, but the hippopotamus is more common. The population is so dense that the king-who is worshipped as a great fetish-can bring into the field an army of 100,000 men. The government, customs, and superstitions of B. are similar to those prevailing in Ashantee. The capital, Benin, which is situated in lat. 6° 20′ N., long. 5° 50′ E., with about 15,000 inhabitants, has a considerable trade. Messrs Smith and Moffat, who visited it in 1838, describe its

market-place as very offensive, from the effluvia rising from a heap of human skulls; while in the outskirts of the town they were still more revolted by the sight of turkey-buzzards feeding on bodies of men recently decapitated. At Gato, a harbour lower down the river, where the traveller Belzoni died, European merchants formerly had factories. Warree is another principal place. The export trade of B. consists of palm-oil, salt, blue coral, jasper, wild-beast skins, slaves, &c. B. was discovered by the Portuguese Alfonso de Aveiro, 1486. In 1786, the French founded settlements at the mouth of the river, which were destroyed by the British in 1792.

BENI'N, BIGHT OF, that portion of the Gulf of Guinea (q. v.) extending from Cape Formosa on the east to Cape St Paul's on the west, a distance of about 390 miles, with a coast-line of 460 miles. Several rivers empty themselves into the B. of B., the three principal of which, Benin, Escardos, and Forcados, are accessible to shipping. The coast along the Bight was blockaded in 1851 by the British fleet engaged in the suppression of the slave-trade. Palm-oil and ivory are the principal articles of trade at the towns on the coast.

BENI-SOUE'F, a town of Central Egypt, on the right bank of the Nile, about 70 miles south-southwest of Cairo, one of the stations where travellers, making the tour of Egypt, usually stay. It is the entrepôt of all the produce of the fertile valley of Fayoum, and has cotton-mills and quarries of alabaster. Pop. 5000.

BENITIER, or BENATURA, the name of the vase or vessel in which consecrated or 'holy-water' is held in Roman Catholic churches. In England, the B. was known by the names of the 'holy-water font,' the 'holy-water vat,' the 'holy-water pot,' the holy-water stone,' the 'holy-water stock,' and the 'holy-water stoup.' Benitiers were either movable or fixed. Portable ones, commonly of silver, were used in processions. Fixed benitiers were placed near the doors of churches, so that the people might dip their fingers in the water, and cross themselves with it as they entered or left the church. The learned French ecclesiologist, M. Viollet-le-Duc, is disposed to think that, before the 12th c., there were no fixed benitiers, their place being served by vases of metal set down near the entrance of the church when the doors were opened. The fixed B. is usually placed either against a pillar, or upon a pedestal. It is of all shapes, and is of the most different materials, but oftenest of stone. The benitiers belonging to the church of St Sulpice, in Paris, are remarkable for their beauty. They are formed of magnificent shells, and bordered with gilt copper. In Great Britain, benitiers are found of every style, from Romanesque to late Third Pointed. On the continent, they range from Romanesque to Renaissance, those of the latter style being generally of marble, richly sculptured, and supported by figures.

BENJAMIN (a Hebrew proper name, signifying Son of my Right Hand,' or 'Son of Good Fortune'), the youngest and most beloved of the sons of Jacob. His mother, Rachel, who died soon after he was born, called him Benoni (Son of my Pain), but his father changed it to Benjamin. He was the head of one of the twelve tribes of Israel. The tribe in the desert reckoned 35,400 warriors above twenty years of age; and on the entrance into Canaan, 45,600. Its territory, which was small but fertile, lay on the west side of the Jordan, between the tribes of Ephraim and Judah. The chief places were Jericho, Bethel, Gibeon, Gilgal, and Jerusalem, the last of which was on the confines of Judah. In the time of the Judges,' the tribe of B. became involved in