2. Most impersonals are also very defective in their tenses: but in the forming of them let the learner name their principal tenses, if used, as in ovpßaive it happens; if not, their other tenses. 3. The most usual impersonals active are as follow: 1. Ανήκει and προσήκει it is fit, imp. ἄνηκε and προσηκε, particip. ἀνῆκον and προσῆκον. 2. Δεῖ it behovah, imp. ἔδει, opt. δέοι, 1 fut. δεήσει, 1 aor. ἐδέησε, infin. δεῖν, δεήσειν, δεῆσαι, particip. δέον, δεῆσον, δεῆσαν. Compounds, ἀποδεῖ, ἐνδεῖ, καταδεῖ, προσδεῖ, 3. Aorei it seemeth, imp. ¿dóкet, 1 fut. dót, 1 aor. Edote, subj. dóžŋ, part. dokovv. Compounds, μεταδοκεῖ, συνδοκεῖ. 4. Méλε it is a concern, imperf. čμede, 1 fut. μedŋoeɩ, 1 aor. ¿μéλŋoe, particip. μéλov. Compound, μεταμέλει. 5. Πρέπει it becometh, imperf. ἔπρεπε, infin. πρέπειν, particip. πρέπον. 6. Χρή it behoreth, imperf. ἐχρῆν or χρῆν, 1 fut. χρήσει, infin. χρῆναι. Compounds, ἀπόχρη, &c. 7. Several compounds of the verb lori, as ɛorɩ it is lawful. 4. There are also impersonals passive, as 1. 'Evdixeraι it may be. 2. Eipapraι it is decreed by the Fates, perf. pass. Attic from μɛiow to divide. 3. Πέπρωται, the same, pluperf. πέπρωτο, particip. πεπρωμένον, by syncope from περατόω to define, determine. 5. Besides the foregoing impersonals, some verbs neuter, and all verbs passive, or that signify passively, in their third persons may be used impersonally, as pidei it useth or is wont, paivetai it appears, ἐπιτρέπεται it is permitted, γέγραπται it is written. SECTION XVIII. OF ADVERBS AND INTERJECTIONS. OF ADVERBS. 1. An adverb is an indeclinable particle added to a verb (ad verbum) or adjective, "to denote some modification or circumstance of an action or quality," as cadwg well, in raλwç ȧvayıvwokɛt he reads well. 2. Adverbs in Greek are either primitive, as vuv now; or derivative, either from nouns, as TáνV altogether, åvôpiøri manfully; or from verbs, as ȧvapavdá openly, кpúßdŋv secretly, 3. Adverbs in we are derived from [the nominatives of adjectives in og], and the genitives of adjectives [which increase] by changing os into ως, as from ἀληθῶν, ἀληθῶς truly; from ὀξέων, ὀξέως sharply. 4. Some adverbs form degrees of comparison, thus: 1. When the positive adverb is formed [as in § 3.] the comparative adverb is [similarly] formed from the comparative, and the superlative from the superlative, by changing into c, thus: From adjective ropós wise, is formed adv. ropuc wisely; From comparat. σοφώτερος wiser, adv. σοφωτέρως more wisely; So from Taxúc swift, adv. Taxέwc swiftly; From comparat. raxurepog swifter, adv. Taxurépws more swiftly; And from superlat. raxúraroc swiftest, adv. raxvráτws most swiftly. 2. If the positive adverb ends in w, so does the comparative and superlative, as avo upwards, comparat. ἀνωτέρω, superlat. ἀνωτάτω. OF ADVERBIAL PARTICLES. 5. A in composition denies, collects, or increases, as ãxapıç unthankful, üπavrıç all together, ãžvλoç full of wood. 6. The syllabic adjections, de, σE, Zɛ, denote to a place, as oikade (to) home, oupavóσe into heaven, Αθήναζε το Athens ; θεν and θε from a place, as οὐρανόθ from heaven ; θι, οι, σι, χου, χη in a place as οὐρανόθι in heaven, οἴκοι at home, ̓Αθήνησι in Athens, πανταχοῦ and πανταχῆ every where. 7. Αρι, ερι, ζα, λα, βου, prefixed to words, heighten their signification, as δήλος manifest, ἀρίδηλος very manifest. 8. Nŋ and vɛ deprive, as výrɩoç an infant, from vý not, and ẽπw to speak. 9. E in composition has a good sense, denoting easiness or kindness; dug, an ill one, signifying dificulty or ill will, as ευάλωτος easy to be taken, δυσάλωτος hard to be taken ; εὐμενής benevolent, δυσμενής malevolent. OF INTERJECTIONS. 10. Under adverbs in Greek are comprehended interjections, that is, words thrown into (interjecta in) a sentence to express some emotion of mind, as of joy, ioú, ho! of grief, lov, iw, oh! of laughter, à, à, ha ha! ha! of approving, ela O brare! evye well done! of condemning, &, peù, O fye! of admiring, &, ßáßai, náñai, aïßoi, O wonderful! of deriding, lov ah! of calling, & ho! of grief, ovai woe! SECTION XIX. OF CONJUNCTIONS. 1. A CONJUNCTION is an indeclinable particle that joins together (conjungit) sentences and sometimes single words 1. 2. In Greek they may be distinguished into 1. Copulative, as Kai, Tɛ, and, also, &c. 2. Disjunctive, й, îτоɩ, ñуovv, either, or, &c. 3. Concessive, Kainεp, though, although. 4. Adversative, dé but, àλλá but, öμwç yet. 5. Causal, yap for, iva, öπws, that, to the end that, πedýπεр since. 6. Conclusive or illative, apa, ovv, therefore, dióneρ wherefore. 7. Conditional, ɛi, āv, iƒ. SECTION XX. OF PREPOSITIONS. 1. A PREPOSITION is an indeclinable particle put before (præposita) verbs in composition, and nouns in construction. 2. "Most prepositions originally denote the relation of place, and have been thence transferred to denote, by similitude, other relations 2." 3. The prepositions in Greek are usually reckoned eighteen, of which six are of one syllable, siç into, ἐκ or ἐξ out of, ἐν in, πρό before, πρός to, σύν with, and twelve of two syllables, ἀμφί round about, ἀνά through, ἀντί instead of, ἀπό from, διά by, ἐπί in, upon, κατά according to, μετά with, παρά from, at, epi concerning, about, vπip above, over, vπó under. 4. The prepositions, and their various uses, both in construction and composition, are so fully explained in the ensuing Lexicon, that I forbear saying any thing more of them in this place, only that dupi about, concerning, near, (not used in the New Testament,) is in the Greek writers joined with three cases, the genitive, dative, and accusative. SECTION XXI. OF SYNTAX, AND FIRST OF CONCORD. 1. SYNTAX, from the Greek word ouvražıç composition, is that part of grammar which teaches how to compose words properly in sentences. 2. Syntax may be distinguished into two parts, concord, or agreement; and government. [The following remarks deserve the attention of those who wish to have a clear notion of the elements of the philosophy of grammar.] ! See the Encyclopædia Britannica in Gramınar, No. 115, &c. Bishop Lowth's Introduction to English Grammar, p. 97, 2nd edit. But compare Encyclopædia Britannica in Grammar, No. 128, &c. [In every proposition there must be at least two fundamental ideas: (1) The subject, i. e. the thing or person of which any thing is asserted; and (2) The predicate, i. e. that which is asserted of that person or thing, or which, in other words, expresses the action or quality, the condition, which is ascribed to the subject. The subject and predicate are connected, and thus formed into a proposition by the copula, which is always a verb. Sometimes the copula has a proper verb, as siui, which contains no idea itself; sometimes the copula and predicate are united in one verb, as in the verbs which express a condition by themselves, as Kupoç Téovηкe, Cyrus is dead. Sometimes the condition or action expressed by the verb requires to be determined by a relation in which it stands to a person or thing; and hence arises the determination of the oblique cases which are governed by the verb. Of this we shall speak below. The verb, whether it be the copula alone, or a copula with the predicate, is determined as to person and number by the subject. Now in propositions which are independent of any other, the subject is in the nominative (except in the case of the acc. and infin.); and from the two last considerations arises what is called the first concord in common grammar.] OF THE FIRST CONCORD. 3. The verb agrees with its nominative case in number and person, as ¿yw yρápw I write, äv0pwπου λέγουσι men say. 4 The nominative case to a verb is found by asking the question who? or what? with the verb, as in the sentence just given; men, answering to the question who say? is the nominative case to the verb say. 5. All nouns are of the third person, except such as are joined with the pronouns I, thou, we, or ye. 2 6. A neuter noun plural has generally a verb singular, as πávra ¿yéveTo all things were made, Zwa τρέχει animals run. [But even in Attic (in which this construction is most common) it often does not take place, and especially when the neut. plur. signifies living persons, or even where animate creatures are to be understood.] 7. Two or more nominatives, of whatever number, generally have a verb plural, and if the nominatives differ in person, of the most worthy 3 person, as σжÉρμа каi карñòç diapéρovσi, seed and fruit differ; yw kai où rà dixαia Toɩhooμev, I and thou will do right things. [But (1) their verb is not always in the plural, but is frequently governed by the nearest substantive, especially if this be a singular, or a neuter plural, as in Homer, Il. H. 386. ývwyεt píaμóc тe кai äλλoi (see also Eur. Supp. 146. Thuc. i. 29.); and sometimes when the sing. or neut. plur. is the more remote. We may add, that a plural verb is often given to a dual subject, see II. E. 275. and sometimes a dual verb to a plural subject, which only relates to two persons or things.] 8. A noun of multitude, though singular in form, may have a verb plural, as Luke viii. 37, ýрúrησav avròν äñаν тò ñλños, all the multitude asked him. Comp. John vii. 49. and Rule 15. below. [II. B. 278. Herod. ix. 23. This is done very often with kaσTOC.] 9. A verb placed between two nominatives of different numbers may agree with either, as ovos πολυανθρωπώτατόν ἐστιν, οι εἰσιν, "Αραβες, the Arabians are a most populous nation. 10. The primitive pronouns, whether of the first or second person, are generally omitted before a verb, (unless some emphasis or distinction be intended,) as ypȧpw I write, Niyaç thou sayest. 11. The nominative case of the third person is also often omitted, especially before such verbs as these, λέγουσι, φασί, they say; ειώθασι, φιλοῦσι, they are wont, &c., understand άνθρωποι men. So before verbs of nature, as εβρόντησε it thundered, ἤστραψε it lightened, i. e. Θεός God, or οὐρανός heaven. OF THE SECOND CONCORD. 12. [The adjective is properly determined in gender and number by (i. e. is in the same number and gender as) the substantives with which it is put as an epithet or predicate. (It is an epithet when, with the substantive, it constitutes a whole, which would be imperfect without it; and a pre We may Here in English, Cyrus is the subject, his death is the predicate, and these ideas are connected by the copulate is.] 2 By no means always; see Mark v. 13. John x. 27. 1 Cor. xii 25. James ii. 19. Rev. xviii. 23. xx. 12. further observe, that nouns plural [and dual], both masculine and feminine, are likewise sometimes, though rarely, joined with verbs singular in the best Greek writers. Thus Pindar, Ol. xi. 4, 5, μɛλiyapves vμvoi vστépov ȧpxai λóyor τέλλεται, the sweet hymns is the prelude to the discourses which follow: Plato, οὐκ ἔστιν οἵτινες ἀπέχονται συμποσίων η Κρήτες, there is not who abstain from feasts except the Cretans; Aristotle, οὐκ ἐνεξεφύετο τοῖς μὲν αἱ τρίχες, τοῖς δὲ τὰ ATEрά, on some grew no hairs, on others no feathers. The author of the Port-Royal Grammar, who produces the passages just cited, accounts for this construction (book ix. rule 5.) by observing, that "such expressions are real syllepses, (and the syllepsis is defined, book vii. ch. 7, to be a figure which marks some disproportion and disagreement in the parts of a sentence,) for, as when we say 'turba ruunt,' the multitude rush, the verb is put in the plural, because we apprehend a multitude by the word turba; so when we say animalia currit' [Ca Tpexe] the verb is put in the singular, by reason we conceive an universality by the word 'animalia' animals, as if it were 'omne animal currit,' every animal runs, or indefinitely animal currit, an animal runs." Thus my author, who shows that similar phrases are used both in the Latin and French languages; I add, that so are they likewise in Hebrew; see Joel i. 20. Jer. xxxv. 14. and my Hebrew Grammar, sect. viii. 21. 3 In persons the first is called more worthy than the second, and the second than the third; or as Mr. Holmes states it, in his Latin Grammar, p. 53. note, "I and another are we, thou and another are ge; so that the verb agrees with the first person rather than the second, and with the second rather than the third." dicate, when a new determination is subjoined to a substantive considered as perfect.) Thus χρηστὸς ἀνήρ, φίλαις γυναιξίν.] 13. [But this rule is often violated; for the Greeks frequently refer adjectives to the substantive only in sense, and put them in the gender implied in the substantive. Thus, II. X. 84. piλɛ τέκνον, because τέκνον here implies a male. Il. Π. 280. φάλαγγες ἐλπόμενοι, because the troops consisted of men.] 14. [Hence, a noun of number,—singular, feminine, or neuter,—has very often an adjective masculine and plural, Luke ii. 13. πλῆθος στρατιᾶς οὐρανίου, αἰνούντων, a multitude of the heavenly host, praising, &c. Luke xix. 37. üñaν тò ñλñlos xaipovтes, all the multitude rejoicing. See Thuc. iii. 79. Xen. Hist. Gr. ii. 3, 55.] 15. [But even without this reference to the sense the rule is violated; the fem. dual is put with the masculine, Thuc. v. 23. ẵμow τw πóλɛɛ; the masc. with the fem. both singular and plural, Eur. Hec. 659. Oñλvv σñоρáν; frequently participles masc. both singular and plural with substantive feminine, Pind. Ol. vi. 23. ¿πrà πvρãv teλeo0évTWV 1.] 16. [The adjective, as a predicate, not an epithet, is often put in the neuter singular, when the subject is masculine or feminine, or in the plural, as Il. B. 204. ovк áɣaðòv woλUкоipavin, the rule of the many is not a good thing. (See Virg. Ecl. iii. 80. Æn. iv. 568.) See Mat. vi. 25. 34. 2 Cor. ii. 6. Aristoph. Plut. 203. Long. 31, 32. Herod. ii. 68. Sometimes xρñμa or ктñμa, a thing, is joined to the adjective so placed.] 17. [If adjectives refer to two or more substantives, and these are of the same gender, the adjective is properly of this gender and number (yet very often in the neuter); but if they are of different genders, then the neuter plural is put when the objects are inanimate, as Herod. ii. 132. τὸν αὐχένα καὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν κεχρυσωμένα ; but with animated beings, in the masculine, if one is masculine, as Pind. Ol. ix. 66. IIúppa ▲evкaλíwv Tε Kaтaßávтe; and very frequently it is determined both in gender and number by one only of the substantives, Thuc. viii. 63. Erрoμßixidηv kai τὰς ναῦς ἀπεληλυθότα.] 18. The Greeks, considering the substantive very frequently as the whole, and the adjective as the part, put the substantive in the genitive, and the adjective sometimes in the gender of the substantive, as θέων λεκτοί, for λεκτοὶ θεοι, Soph. (Ed. Τ. 18. χρηστοὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων the good of men, i. e. such of men as are good; and even in the singular, especially in Attic, Tov oírov rov pov; sometimes in the neuter, rò πoλλòv τns στρariñs, Herod. viii. 100.] [N.B. Adjectives are often put alone in the neuter gender, or stand as substantives for any indefinite objects thought of and understood. Here the common grammars say there is an ellipse οἱ χρῆμα οι χρήματα.] OF THE THIRD CONCORD. 19. The relative pronoun, öc, i, o, agrees with the substantive to which it refers, called its antecedent, in gender, number, and person; and if there be no nominative case between the relative and the verb, the relative itself will be the nominative case to the verb, as μaxápiós kotiv ó ávýp öç iλmize, blessed is the man who hopeth. 20. But if there be some other nominative case to the verb, the relative will, as to case, be governed by the verb, or by some other word in the sentence, as μακάριον τὸ ἔθνος οὗ Κύριος ὁ Góc LOTE λads öv ¿žeλéžaro, blessed (is) the nation whose God the Lord is, the people whom he hath chusen. In this sentence the first relative où is, as to case, governed by the noun Oɛóc, (comp. rule 32.) the second relative öv by the verb žeλétaro, (comp. rule 43.) 21. But observe that the relative and antecedent in Greek are often put in the same case, as izioTevoav-rý λóyp ý (for òv) εlæεv, they believed-the word which he spake. John ii. 22. 22. Two or more antecedents generally have a relative plural, agreeing in gender and person with the most worthy, as ȧvǹp kai yvvý oì ảyañŵoi ròv Đɛóv, a man and a woman who love God 2. 23. A relative between two antecedents of different genders or numbers may agree with either, as Lucian, wódɛg ɛioiv oûç pwλeoù voμiles, those are cities which you take for cares. Gal. iii. 16. 79 σπέρματί σου, ὃς ἐστι Χριστός, to thy seed, which is Christ. Eph. iii. 13. ταῖς θλίψεσί μου, ἥτις ἐστὶ ióta vpov, my afflictions, which are your glory. 24. Αὐτός, οὗτος, ἐκεῖνος, ὅσος how many, ἡλίκος as great, οἷος of such kind, also πόσοι how many, πόσος of what number, &c. ποταπός of what country, ποσαπλούς and ποσαπλάσιος of how many fold, are sometimes used after the manner of the relative, as ἐλεφάντων ἔμβρυον (ἐστὶ ἡλίκου (έστι) μόσχος, the fatus of dephants is as big as a calf; χαριζόμενος οἵῳ σοι ἀνδρί, obliging such a man as you. 25. Relatives often agree with their antecedents, not as to their gender, but as to their sense, as Mat. xxviii. 19. ἔθνη αὐτούς. Rom. i. 14. ἔθνητούτοι. Col. i. 19. τὴν κεφαλήν, ἐξ οὗ. Rev. xvii. 16. Kipara-OUTOL. So in Latin, Terence, Andr. iii. 5, 1. Scelus, qui me perdidit. Horace, Monstrum, quæ-lib. i. ode xxxvii. 21. The Greek tragedians use the masculine for the feminine, when the plural instead of the singular of a female is used and when a chorus of women speaks of themselves.] 2 (see 7. on Adj. Most of the same observations apply to the relative.] 26. The relative is often put before the antecedent, especially when in the same case, as John xi. 6. Eμeivev iv y Tóny, he stayed in the place in which he was. [In fact it puts the noun often into its own case, as Xen. Anab. i. 9, 11. εἴ τινα όρῴη κατασκευάζοντα ἧς ἄρχοι χώρας, for τὴν Xwpar ne äpxoi. Hence, the nouns which should precede the relative, with a demonstrative pronoun or adjective, in the same case with these, are frequently referred to the relative, as Soph. Ed. C. 907. οὕς περ οὗτος τοὺς νόμους εἰσῆλθ ̓ ἔχων, τούτοισιν ἁρμοσθήσεται ; and this construetion is united with the preceding, ibid. 334. (ἦλθον) ξὺν ᾧπερ εἶχον οἰκετῶν πιστῷ μόνῳ. Sometimes the substantive, even when standing first, takes the case of the relative which follows, as Herod. ii. 106, τὰς στήλας τὰς ἵστα-Σέσωστρις, αἱ πλεῦνες οὐκέτι φαίνονται περιεοῦσαι. So in Virg. Urbem, quam statuo, vestra est.] 27. A verb, an adjective, or a relative, sometimes agrees with a preceding infinitive mood, or a sentence; and in such instances the verb is put in the third person, and the adjective or relative in the neuter gender, as ξυρεῖν τὸν λέοντα οὐκ ἐστιν ἀσφαλές, to shear a lion is not safe; μὴ μεθύσκεσθε οἴνῳ, ἐν ᾧ (neut.) ἐστὶν ἀσωτία, be not drunk with wine, in which (being drunk with wine namely) is profligacy. Eph. v. 18. [We may add also, that very frequently the relative refers to a thing generally, and is then also put in the neuter, as in Soph. Ed. T. 542. rvọavvíða Onoặv ò πλήθει ἁλίσκεται, a thing which.] OF GOVERNMENT. 28. Government is that part of syntax which respects the cases of nouns and pronouns. OF APPOSITION. [29. Apposition is when a substantive or pronoun personal is accompanied by another substantive without a conjunctive particle, and in the same case and number, serving to explain the former, or supply any definition, as ἡ δὲ μί' (μοῖρα) ἐκ πέτρης προρέει, μέγα πῆμα θεοῖσιν. But very often the number is not the same, as in Soph. Ed. C. 472. крaτñpés elow, ávôpòs evxeipos réxvn. Eur. Hipp. 11. 'ITπóλvrog, Пir0έwę raideúμara: sometimes the case is changed; for example, the gen. is used when the apposition refers to pronouns possessive, as in Homer, Il. r. 180. dan tμòç čσke KUVάidos: and so in adjectives derived from proper names, where the proper name includes a definition, II. B. 54. NeσTopέy Tapà vηî ПIvλnyevέos Baσiλños, the ship of Nestor, the king, &c.] 30. Two or more substantives belonging to the same thing are put in the same case by apposition, as Παῦλος ἀπόστολος, Paul an apostle; Τιμοθέῳ τέκνῳ, to Timothy (my) son; "Ασωπος πόλις, the town Asopus. 31. The proper name of a place, particularly of a town, is sometimes put with its appellative in the genitive, as 'A0ŋvõν ñóλic, the city of Athens. [ON THE NOMINATIVE.] [32. (a) Verbs not constituting a complete predicate, but requiring another word, are generally the passives signifying to be called, named, or chosen for any thing, to appear, to be considered, to be known. There are also some not passive, signifying being or becoming, or conceying the same idea as εἰμὶ, μένω, πέφυκα, κατέστην, &c., and these all have the additional word in the nominative.] [(6) Hence also with ἀκούω, when signifying to be called, and with ὄνομά ἐστί τινι and ὄνομα xu, referring to a subject, the nominative is put. The additional words may be either substantives or adjectives.] [(c) With verbs also which have a perfect signification, a second nominative is put as a predicate to be explained by ὡς as. Thus Soph. El. 130. ÿrete tapaμú◊ɩov, ye are come as a comfort.] [(d) A more precise definition is sometimes in the nominative, déka praï ɛiopopá, ten minœ as tribute.] [(e) The nominative is used also in exclamations.] ON THE GENITIVE. [N.B. The other relations which the verb in the predicate requires to be adjoined, either according to its nature, or in certain combinations, are expressed by what are called the oblique cases, i. e. those which must be dependent on other words.] [33. The genitive may stand not only with the predicate, but with any word of the proposition, and expresses relation in general. Each idea of relation takes the noun by which this relation is determined in the genitive.] [34. In many cases where the substantive is joined with others in the genitive, in the question whose, the Greek agrees with the Latin and English. The most common case is when the genitive signifies the thing or person in which another is, or which belongs to another, as the subject of the |