9. The compound pronouns iμ-avrov myself, oɛ-avrov thyself, have only the singular; but javroй himself, both the singular and plural. All of them want the nominative and vocative: Sing. G. ἐμαυτ-οῦ, ἧς, οὔ, D. ἐμαυτῷ, δ, φ, Α. ἐμαυτόν, ήν, ό. 5ο σεαυτοῦ and ἑαυτοῦ; but this last in the plural, G. ἑαυτῶν, D. ἑαυτοῖς, αἷς, οἷς, Α. ἑαυτούς, άς, ά. [To express the plural of ἐμαυτοῦ and σεαυτοῦ, the Greeks use ἡμεῖς αὐτοί, ὑμεῖς αὐτοί, &c., and we find also σφῶν αὐτῶν, &c.]

10. To the above must be added the indefinite pronoun dava a certain person or thing, and the indefinite ris any one, also the interrogative rig who? what?

11. Ativa is generally undeclined, but it is sometimes declined thus: Sing. N. ỏ, ǹ, tò dɛīva, G. δεῖνος, D. δεῖνι, Α. δεῖνα [plur. N. δεῖνες, G. δείνων].

13. The compound boric who, whosoever, is declined like öc and rig, thus, Sing. N. öoric, TIS, Ö, TL, G. ούτινος, ἧστινος, ούτινος, D. φτινι, τινι, φτινι, Α. ὅντινα, ἥντινα, ὅ,τι, &c. The Attics for the G. and D. sing. of ὅστις use ὅτου and ὅτῳ, and for the G. plural ὅτων.

14. [The reciprocal pronoun ἀλλήλων is thus declined : G. ἀλλήλων, D. ἀλλήλοις, ἀλλήλαις, Α. ἀλλήλους, ας, α, dual gen. dat. ἀλλήλοιν, -aiv, acc. áλλýλw, a, one another.]

SECTION X.

OF VERBS, AND FIRST OF VERBS IN Q.

11. "A VERB is a word which signifies to do, to suffer, or to be." Hence,

2. "There are three kinds of verbs, active, passive, and neuter.

3. “A verb active expresses an action, and necessarily implies an agent, and an object acted upon; as, to love, I love Thomas :" to beat, I beat John.

4. "A verb passive expresses a passion or a suffering, or the receiving of an action, and necessarily implies an object acted upon, and an agent by which it is acted upon; as, to be loved, Thomas is loved by me;" John is beaten by me.

5. "So when the agent takes the lead in the sentence, the verb is active, and is followed by the object; when the object takes the lead, the verb is passive, and is followed by the agent."

6. “A verb neuter expresses being, or a state or condition of being; when the agent and the objec acted upon coincide, and the event is properly neither action nor passion, but rather something between both; as, I am, I sleep, I walk."

7. Verbs in Greek are declined by persons, numbers, tenses, moods, voices, and conjugations.

8. "By the designation of person a verb corresponds with the several personal pronouns; by that of number it corresponds with the number of the noun or pronoun it belongs to, whether singular, dual, or plural; of tense or time, it represents the action, passion, or being, as present, past, or future, whether imperfectly or perfectly, that is, whether passing in such time, or then finished; of mood or mode, it expresses the various manner of the action, passion, or being :" of voices, it denotes action, passion, or both. Comp. above 2, &c.

9. Greek verbs then have-1. Three Persons; first, second, and third.-2. Three numbers; singular, dual, and plural.-3. Eight tenses or times. [The time in which an action can take place, is either present, past, or future. Of the present, there is only one simple form in Greek, as TUTTO. Of the past, we may observe, that an action is either, (1) with relation to itself, entirely past, or, (2) relative, past with respect to another time expressed or understood. Now, the aorists designate the time wholly past; the imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect, the relative time. The imperfect represents a past action, as continuing during another past action, and accompanying it; the perfect, a perfect action continuing to the present time; the pluperfect, also a perfect action continuing to a past time. The future time has three modifications, either, (1) with respect to its future beginning

In the beginning of this section I am greatly indebted to Bishop Lowth's Introduction to English Grammar, pp. 43-46, second edition.

(fut. 1 and 2 act. and fut. middle), or, (2) as future and complete (fut. 1 and 2 pass.), or, (3) as future and finished with respect to an action to take place hereafter (3rd fut. pass.). Thus, γράφω, I write.

Aor. έγραψα, I wrote, but the writing may perhaps not be existing.

Perf. γέγραφα, I have written, and the writing exists.

Aor. ἔγημα, I have married.

Perf. γεγάμηκα, I am married.

Pluperf. ἡ πόλις ἐτετείχιστο, the city had been fortified, and was so still at the time referred to. Imperf. ἔγραφον, I was writing.

In the same verb, the different forms of the future cannot be distinguished more than these of the aorists, except the 3rd fut. pass., which has the same relation to the other futures as the perfect to the aorist. This tense properly marks a future action, the beginning of which, however, in regard to time, is past, but the consequences of which continue. Thus, μεμίζεται ἐσθλὰ κακοῖσιν, will be mired (continuing, not will have been mired). Sometimes it expresses rapidity of action.] - 4. Five moods : the indicative, or declaring mood, as τύπτω I smite ; the imperative, or bidding, as τύπτε smite thou ; the optative, or wishing mood, as εἶθε τύπτοιμι I wish I smite; the subjunctive, i. e. subjoined or put after a conjunction, as ἐὰν τύπτω if I smite; and, lastly, the infinitive mood, which is indefinite as to person and number, as τύπτειν to smite, and has very much the nature of a noun, for which it is frequently used in Greek. 5. Three voices: the active, as τύπτω I smite; the passive, as τύπτομαι I am smitten (see rules 3 and 4 above); and middle; which last is in signification frequently active, sometimes passive, but seems most properly to express reflected action, as τύπτομαι İsmite myself'.

10. There are two conjugations, or different ways of declining different verbs: those of the first conjugation end in w, as τύπτω I smite, τιμάω I honour ; of the second, in μι, as ἵστημι I place.

11. Here follows the conjugation, or method of declining the active voice of a verb in w, which the learner must diligently commit to memory, repeating every person in each tense, first with the English, (except in the optative and subjunctive moods,) as τύπτω I smite, τύπτεις thou smitest, τύπτει he emiteth ; plur. τύπτομεν ue smite, τύπτετε ye smite, τύπτουσι they smite; and then without, 35 τύπτω, τύπτεις, τύπτει, &ς.

2nd thou, 3rd he. 2nd ye two, 3rd they two. 1st we, 2nd ye, 3rd they.

* See Dr. Clark's note on Homer, Il. iii. 141. but especially Lud. Kuster, de vero Usu Verborum Mediorum. 'This Æolic 1st aorist, as the grammarians call it, is much used by the Attics in the second and third person ssgular, and in the third person plural.

B

[It must be observed, that there is no single verb which has all these tenses. Very few verbs have both the aor. 1 and aor. 2 ; and this observation applies also to the passive voice. There the 1st and 2nd aor. are seldom found in the same verb. Again, it is rare to find the perfect active, and what is called the perfect middle, in the same verb. Whenever the imperfect and 2nd aor. in the active would have the same termination, the 2nd aor. rarely occurs. See some further observations on the future. We may take this opportunity of observing, that probably the 2nd and 3rd person dual were always the same.]

12. Participles are a kind of verbal adjectives, and are so called because they participate of the nature both of an adjective and of a verb, being declined (comp. sect. vii. 8.) and joined with substantives like the former, but denoting time, and expressing an action or state, and governing cases like the latter. Comp. sect. xxi. 55.

OF THE FORMATION OF THE TENSES IN THE ACTIVE VOICE, AND FIRST OF THE PRESENT TENSE AND CHARACTERISTIC LETTER.

13. The present tense active is the theme (rò éμa) or foundation of all the rest. 14. The characteristic letter is that which immediately precedes the termination, as λέγεις.

in λέγω,

15. But when two consonants, 77, Kт, ог μv, precede the termination, the former of these is the characteristic, as m in τύπτω, μ in τέμνω.

16. The present, first future, and perfect, are the three principal tenses, whence the other tenses respectively are derived or formed; and in these three tenses the characteristic letter is varied in a fourfold manner, whence there are four classes of characteristics.

4. Of the fourth class or liquids are in the present λ, μ, v, p, μv; to which characteristics are added & circumflexed in the first future, and ka in the perfect, but μ is changed into μnka, and v

into xa.

1 Some grammarians have said, that the subjunctive mood of verbs has no first future. But they are mistaken. For, Mark xiii. 11. we have λaλonte; John xvii. 2. Rev. xiii. 16, va doon, Eph. vi. 3, iva eon; 1 Cor. ix. 18, va thow; Matt. xxvi. 17, érouάowμev. So in the middle voice, Acts xxi. 24. iva Evpηowvra: Luke xxii. 30, iva kabionote; Luke xxiv. 49, ἕως οὗ ἐνδίσησθε. In the passive, 1 Cor. xiii. 3, ἵνα κανθήσωμαι; 1 Pet. iii. 1, ἵνα-κερδηθήσωνται ; Mat. v. 25, μήποτε βληθήση.

2 When the future ends in @ circumflexed (see § 38, below), the participle is -v, ovoa, ouv. G. ouvros, ovens, οῦντος, &c.

3 See sect. i. 9.

OF THE IMPERFECT TENSE AND THE AUGMENT.

18. The imperfect is formed from the present by changing w into ov, and prefixing the augment, 23 τύπτω, ἔτυπτον.

19. The augment is of two kinds, syllabic and temporal. [The use of the augment in the oldest writers is extremely fluctuating, i. e. in Homer and Hesiod. Herodotus generally uses it.]

OF THE SYLLABIC AUGMENT.

20. The syllabic augment is & prefixed to a tense when the verb begins with a consonant; for then is prefixed to the imperfect, pluperfect, and to the 1st and 2nd aorist of the indicative, but not of the other moods1.

21. If the verb begins with p, the p is doubled after ε, as piπτw, EppiπTOV.

22. The Attics prefix & to verbs beginning with o or w, and preserve the breathing of the theme, ὁράω, ἑώραον.

23. The Attics also change the syllabic augment into the temporal, as from μ¿Mw, iμeλλdov, Attie ήμελλον.

OF THE TEMPORAL AUGMENT.

24. The temporal augment is n or prefixed to a tense instead of a changeable vowel or diphthong.

25. The changeable vowels and diphthongs are a, e, o ; aɩ, av, oɩ: a and ɛ are changed into ŋ, o into w; and the t of the diphthongs is subscribed, as ἀκούω, ἤκουον; ἐρείδω, ἤρειδον ; ὀρύττω, ὤρυττον; αἴρω, προν; αὐξάνω, ηὔξανον; οἰκίζω, ᾤκιζον.

26. If a verb begins with an unchangeable vowel or diphthong, that is, with n, 1, V, W, EL, EV, OV, the same will be the beginning of all the tenses, as ἠχέω, ἤχεον ; εὐθύνω, εὔθυνον, &c.

27. Yet the Attics change ev into nu, as evdo to sleep, imperf. Attic nudov. [This is matter of considerable doubt; the change is often made in the editions, but with no consistency in the MSS.]

EXCEPTIONS.

28. Four verbs beginning with a have no augment, aw to breathe, ãov; áîw to hear, äïor; áŋléoow to be unaccustomed, ἀήθεσσον; and ἀηδίζομαι to be tired, ἀηδιζόμην.

29. Some verbs beginning with & take i after it for the augment, as exw to hare, eixov. So λw, Έλκω, ἔρπω, ἑστήκω, ἕπομαι, ἐρέω, ἑστιάω, ἐάω, ἕω, ἐρύω, ἐθίζω, ἐργάζομαι, ἑλίσσω. So ἔπω, εἶπον, which last preserves the augment throughout all the inoods.

30. E before o is not changed, but the o is changed into w, as koprálw, iwpralov.

31. Some verbs beginning with ot have no augment, particularly those derived from oivog wine, οἰωνός a bird, οἵαξ a helm.

OF THE AUGMENT OF COMPOUNDS.

32. Compound verbs have the augment in the middle if they begin with a preposition, or with lug and ev before a changeable vowel or diphthong, as καταγινώσκω to condemn, κατεγίνωσκον ; Εγκαταλείπω to forsake, ἐγκατέλειπον; δυσαπιστέω to disbelieve, δυσηπίστεον; εὐεργετέω, εὐηργέτεον.

33. (Except a few in which the preposition does not change the sense of the word, as Kalɛúdw to Μαρ, ἐκάθευδον; or where the simple verb is out of use, as ἀντιβολέω to intercede, ἠντιβόλεον.) 34. All other compounds have the augment in the beginning, as pλooopέw to philosophize, ¿piλoσόφεον; αὐτομολέω to desert, ηυτομόλεον ; ὁμοφρονέω to agree, ώμοφρόνεον; ἀφρονέω to be unwise, ἠφρόνεον ; δυστυχέω to be unfortunate, ἐδυστύχεον.

35. Some are augmented both in the beginning and in the middle, as voxλew to disturb, ἠνώχλεον; ἀνορθύω to correct, ἠνωρθοον ; and a few either in the beginning or the middle, as ανοίγω to open, 1 aor. ἤνοιξα, and (Attic) ἀνέφξα.

36. Prepositions in composition with a verb beginning with a vowel lose their final vowel, as παρακούω, παρήκουον (except περί, πρό, and sometimes ἀμφί, and ἐπί); and if the verb begins with an aspirate breathing, the prepositions change their last tenuis into its corresponding aspirate, 25 in ἀφαιρέω, compounded of ἀπό and αἱρέω, ἐφίστημι οἱ ἐπί and ἵστημι.

37. Compounds with is change it into ἐξ before the augment, as ἐκφέρω, ἐξέφερον ; compounds with iv and oúv, which either change or cast off v, receive the v again before the augment, as ἐλλείπω, ἐνέλειπον; ἐμβλέπω, ἐνέβλεπον ; συῤῥάπτω, συνέῤῥαπτον; συστρέφω, συνέστρεφον ; συζητέω, συνεζήτεον.

1 See the above example of TúTTW.

2 So called because it lengthens the time (tempus, -oris) of pronouncing the syllable.
Comp. sect. i. 17.

OF THE FUTURE.

38. [The original termination of the future was, no doubt, éow in all cases. Then in some words ε, and in others σ was rejected, partly for euphony, partly, it may be, to distinguish different senses of the same word; and thus two forms of the future arose.]

[Verbs, whose characteristic is A, have partly the 1st, partly the 2nd form of the future. Thus (1) ἔλσω, (ἔλσαι, Il. Α. 409.) from ἔλω ; and (2) στελέω, from στέλλω.]

[Verbs, whose characteristics are μ and v, have regularly the 2nd form.]

[The Attics, especially, contract this form tw into w. They do this exclusively in verbs whose characteristic is λ, μ, v, p; in the rest they have generally σ, but in the futures in áow, ow, iow, and όσω they frequently reject the r and contract the remainder, as καλῶ, οἰκτιῶ, &c.]

[Hence, as from the first form to arose two new forms, the one in ow, the other in έw, w, the latter being chiefly used in verbs whose characteristic is λ, μ, v, p, the former in the rest, the grammarians have chosen to suppose the existence of two futures in each verb, deriving this latter form from the 2nd aorist; but this is entirely false. The foregoing remarks will sufficiently illustrate the reasons for the following rules, as, for instance, in the case of TÚRTW, TURTÉOW, TÚRTOW, Túyw.] The future is formed from the present by changing the characteristics

of the first class into ψ, as τύπτω, τύψω ;

of the second

of the third

and by adding to the characteristics of the above, 17, 4.)

into g, as λέγω, λέξω ;

into σ, as πείθω, πείσω ' ;

fourth class & circumflexed, as véμw, veμw. (Comp.

39. [2σ and TT are considered as y, K, x, and have in the future, as rapáσow, rapákw, but] some verbs form their fut. in σω, as ἀγρώσσω, ἀγρώσω ; and many in ζω, in ξω, as αἰάζω, αἰάξω ; and some of these latter in γξω, as κλάζω to clang, κλάγξω. [Αρπάζω, παίζω, and συρίζω, have both forms, in % and in σ.]

40. The penultima2 of the fut. is commonly long, except in the first class of characteristics, where it is always short, and is made so either by striking out the second of two consonants, as riμvw, teμw ; or the second vowel of a diphthong, as paivw, pave; or by using a doubtful vowel short, as кpivo, κρινῶ.

41. Four first futures change the breathing of the present, as Opiew from 7pέxw to run; Opé¥w from τρέφω to nourish; θύψω from τύφω to smoke ; Έξω from ἔχω to have. The three last are thus distinguished from the 1st futures of rρiπw to turn, of rúnrw to smite, and from the adverb ěžw without, respectively.

42. Καίω οι κάω to burn, κλαίω or κλάω to weep, change in the 1st future & into v, as καύσω, κλαύσω.

OF THE FIRST AORIST.

43. The first aorist is formed from the first future by changing w into a, and prefixing the augment, as τύψω, ἔτυψα; οἰκίσω, ᾤκισα.

44. The penultima of the first aorist is commonly long, and therefore, in verbs with the fourth class of characteristics, a of the first future is changed into n3, as paλw, evŋλa; e into εɩ, as σñeρŵ, ἔσπειρα ; and a doubtful vowel is used long, as κρινῶ, ἔκρινα.

45. A few first aorists do not preserve the characteristic of the first future, as 0ŋka I placed, Edwкa I gave, nka I sent, ɛiña I said, йveyкa I brought, ikya I burnt. [Some of these were probably originally perfects.]

OF THE PRETER-PERFECT.

46. The preter-perfect is formed from the first future by changing

but

μω

into μηκα, and vw into kα. 4 And if the verb begins with a single consonant, or with a mute before a liquid, the first letter of the theme must be repeated before the augment, as rú↓w, rétupa ; γράψω, γέγραφα: but a tenuiss is prefixed instead of an aspirate, as θύσω, τέθνκα: and to a double

1 [In verbs pure, when a diphthong precedes, the rule holds, as oei-w oei-ow. But verbs in éw, άw, ów, vw, take the long vowel instead of the short one; or rather εέσω, εάσω, εύσω, become, as in the augment, ήσω and ώσω. But τελέω, ἀρκέω, ξέω, ακέομαι, ἀλέω, ἐμέω, νεικέω, take the short termination ; καλέω, αἰνέω, δέω, ποθέω, πονέω, have both; θέω, νέω, πλέω, πνέω, ρέω, χέω, make εύσω. When άω is preceded by €, 4, λ, p, it makes άσω, except χράω, χράομαι, and τλάω. Ow makes όσω in verbs not derivative.]

i. e. the last syllable but one.

3 And if the verb had in the present, which was lost in the first future, that letter is subscribed, as paivw, parão, ἔφηνα; and sometimes a is preserved long, as κερδαίνω, κερδανῶ, ἐκέρδανα.

4 These verbs have e prefixed to the perfect, notwithstanding they begin with a mute before a liquid, as yvów to know, ἔγνωκα; γνωρίζω, to make known, ἐγνώρικα ; γρηγορέω to watch, έγρηγόρηκα.

5 A tenuis is likewise used in any syllable of the preterperfect, whenever an aspirate begins the next syllable, as θάπτω to bury, θάψω, τέταφα, τρέφω to nourish, θρέψω, τέτρεφα.