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OF RHETORICAL FIGURES.

OF FIGURES IN GENERAL.

THERE are certain embellishments of language, distinct from the common mode of expression, which are usually called FIGURES.

Simple Expression might convey our ideas to others, but figurative language will not only convey our ideas, but will adorn them and render them more striking and expressive. Figurative language is the language of nature, while simple expression is that of art.

The precepts of philosophers, as well as the descriptions of poets, were anciently given in figure. Christ himself taught by figure: the parable, which is a kind of allegory, he constantly used, and one of the Evangelists observes, that without a parable spake not Christ.

Figures have been considered modes of expression first used by poets and orators, when the world had attained a certain degree of civilization and refinement, whereas the contrary is the case; for, in the ruder ages, through a want of proper terms, men were obliged to substitute a circuitous for a direct form of expression; in addition to which, the ardour of the imagination would lead them to assume picturesque and poetical language.

Rhetoricians have divided figures into two classes, viz., figures of words, and figures of thought. The former are called tropes, while the latter have the more general name, figures, assigned them. Tropes may be more clearly defined descriptions of persons, things, or circumstances, which affect the reality of what is described, as, "God is my Rock of defence," while figures are descriptions of persons, things and circumstances, which do not affect the reality of what is described, as, "God is like a rock for defence."

There are seven principal tropes: the Metaphor, the Allegory, the Metonymy, the Synecdoche, the Irony, the Hyperbole, and the Catachresis.

METAPHOR.

The Metaphor, (from μerapopa, a transferring,) is a very brilliant figure, and is founded on the resemblance that one

object bears to another; or, it is the alienation of a word from its common application, for the purpose of ornament. Thus, "The Lord is my shield and buckler," i. e. defence. "Tell that fox," i. e. Herod.

"Thou art to me the beam of the east rising in a land unknown."

OSSIAN. "Her eyes were two stars of light. Her face was heaven's bow in showers." OSSIAN.

"See yonder comes the powerful king of day
Rejoicing in the East. The lessening cloud,
The kindling azure, and the mountain's brow
Illum'd with fluid gold, his near approach
Betoken glad."

"First in his East the glorious lamp was seen,
Regent of day, and all th' horizon round

Invested with bright rays jocund to run

His longitude through heav'ns high road, the great
Dawn and the Pleiades before him danced,
Shedding sweet influence."

ALLEGORY.

THOMSON.

MILTON.

The Allegory, (from aλλŋyopia, ab aλλos, another, and ayopɛvw, to make a speech,) is a continued chain of metaphors. "The Lord is my shepherd," is a metaphor; but, if the figure be carried on, it will become an allegory, as, "The Lord is my shepherd; I shall not want. He maketh me to lie down in green pastures," &c. The allegory, in the early ages, particularly, was a most favourite method of conveying instruction. The heathen mythology is the most beautiful allegory ever composed. Parables, Fables, Apologues, Proverbs, and Enigmas, rank under this head.

The following are considered some of the most striking examples of the allegory in the English language. The figure of the vine, in the first example, is used to represent the chosen people of God.

"Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt, thou hast cast out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it and didst cause it to take deep root and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent out her boughs unto the sea and her branches unto the river. Why hast thou then broken down her hedges, so that all they which pass by do pluck her? The boar out of the wood doth waste it and the wild beast of the field doth devour it. Return we beseech thee, O God of hosts: look down from heaven and behold and visit this vine, and the vineyard which thy right hand hath planted and the branch whieh thou madest strong for thyself."-Psalm 1xxx. ver. 8-15.

"No, 'tis slander,

Whose edge is sharper than the sword; whose tongue
Outvenoms all the worms of Nile; whose breath
Rides on the posting winds and doth belie

All corners of the world. Kings, queens, and states,
Maids, matrons, nay the secrets of the grave,
This viperous slander enters."

"There is a tide in the affairs of men,

Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune :
Omitted, all the voyage of their life

Is bound in shallows, and in miseries."

"Farewell, a long farewell to all my greatness!
This is the state of man; to day he puts forth
The tender leaves of hope, to morrow blossoms,
And bears his blushing honors thick upon him;
The third day comes a frost, a killing frost;
And when, he thinks, good easy man,
full surely
His greatness is a ripening, nips his root;
And then he falls as I do."

"The loud report through Libyan cities goes,

Fame the great ill, from small beginnings grows—
Swift from the first; and every moment brings

SHAKSPEARE.

SHAKSPEARE.

SHAKSPEARE.

New vigour to her flights, new pinions to her wings.
Soon grows the pigmy to gigantic size;
Her feet on earth, her forehead in the skies.
Enrag'd against the gods, revengeful Earth
Produced her, last of the Titanian birth-
Swift is her walk, more swift her winged haste-
A monstrous phantom, horrible and vast,
As many plumes as raise her lofty flight,
So many piercing eyes enlarge her sight:
Millions of op'ning mouths to Fame belong;
And ev'ry mouth is furnish'd with a tongue,

And round with list'ning ears the flying plague is hung,
She fills the peaceful universe with cries:

No slumbers ever close her wakeful eyes:

By day, from lofty tow'rs her head she shews,

And spreads thro' trembling crowds disastrous news;
With court-informers haunts, and royal spies;

Things done relates; not done she feigns; and
mingles truth with lies."

Dryden's Virgil, Æn. iv. L. 251.

"This is sweet

To see the heavens all open and the hood
Of crystal noon flung back! the Earth meanwhile
Filling her veins with sun-shine-vital blood
Of all that now from her full breast doth smile,
(Casting no shadow) on that pleasant flood
Of light."

LAMAN BLANCHARD.

METONY MY.

The Metonymy (from μerwvvjua, a transposing of names, 2 μετα and όνομα, a name,) is the substitution of one name, or word for another, on account of their mutual relation. The cause is by this figure sometimes put for the effect, and the effect for the cause, as, "He reads Homer," i. e. his He is fond of the course," i. e. the race-ground.

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DRYDEN.

"The Fates will find their way "the Thunderer said,”
And shook the sacred honours of his head."
"Achilles wrath, to Greece the direful spring

Of woes unnumber'd, heavenly Goddess sing;
That wrath which hurl'd to Pluto's gloomy reign
The souls of mighty chiefs untimely slain."
"Six youthful sons, as many blooming maids,
In one sad day beheld the Stygian shades;
These by Apollo's silver bow were slain,

Those Cynthia's arrows stretch'd upon the plain."

POPE.

POPE.

The Container is put for the contained, and vice versa, as, "The whole kitchen crowded about the corporal." "He is fond of his bottle," i. e. wine. "I have no gold," i. e. gold coin.

"Good name, in man and woman, dear

Is the immediate jewel of their souls:

my lord,

Who steals my purse, steals trash; 'tis something, nothing,
'Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thousands;

But he that filches from me my good name :

Robs me of that which not enriches him,

And makes me poor indeed."

SHAKSPEARE-Othello.

The Adjunct is put for the subject, and the subject for the adjunct, as "He is an excellent whip," i. e. driver. "Hearts of oak are our men," i. e. firm.

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By the METONYMY, the General is put for his Army, as, Wellington conquered." The Place for its Inhabitants, as, "Paris was in a high state of excitement." "The Substance for the Colour, and vice versa, as, "ivory arms." "A cup of nut-brown," &c. &c. Also by this figure, things often receive their names from persons, animals, apparel, &c., as a phaton, from Phæton, the son of Phœbus; a blanket, from Blanket, the name of the original manufacturer; negus, from F. Negus, Esq., who first introduced this kind of liquor, in the reign of George I.; a hank of worsted, from a manufacturer of the name; a dennet, from the inventor, Dennet; a stanhope, from the

Hon. Mr. Stanhope; a Spencer, a D'oyley, a Sovereign,

&c. &c.

The ANTONOMASIA, the EUPHEMISM, and the METALEPSIS, seem to be allied to the Metonymy.

The ANTONOMASIA (from avtɩ, for, and ovoμa, a name,) implies a change of names, or a substitution of a common for a proper name, and vice versa, in order to confer dignity, or to convey reproach, as, "He is the Cicero of the age.

"Who dares defy th' Omnipotent to arms?"

"Peace, factious monster, born to vex the state

With wrangling talent form'd for foul debate."

MILTON.

POPE.

By the ANTONOMASIA an Ambassador is termed his Excellency; a Clergyman, his Reverence; a cruel man, a Nero; the Bible, the Scriptures; London, town, &c.; also a hair-dresser is sometimes humorously called an artist; a baker, a master of the rolls; a conjurer, a master of arts; a cobbler, a translator, &c.

The EUPHEMISM (from εv, well, and onu, to say,) is a figure by which the idea of any thing harsh, or unpleasant, is conveyed by a more agreeable word: this figure is also called Chroma, a colouring; thus we use the word deceased, for died, and this is still more delicately expressed by St. Luke, who, in reference to St. Stephen's death, observes, that "he fell asleep."

The METALEPSIS, (from μɛra, beyond, and λaußarw, to take,) is the continuation of a trope, in one word, through a succession of significations, as, "The tongue of the sucking child cleaveth to the roof of his mouth for thirst," Lam. iv. 4. By the thirst of the child is implied the dryness of its mother's breasts, by the dry breasts, the famine which prevailed, and by the famine, the general distress.

"'Twas Bitias whom she call'd-a thirsty soul:
He took the challenge, and embraced the bowl,
With pleasure swill'd the gold, nor ceased to draw,
'Till he the bottom of the brimmer saw."

SYNECDOCHE.

DRYDEN.

The SYNECDOCHE (from ovveкdoxn, a comprehension, a ovv, with, and dexoμaι, to take,) is a figure by which a part is put for the whole, or the whole for a part; the genus for the species, or the species for the genus.

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