definite strict individuality. The most prominent marks of this character are the following:

First of all, an uncommon power and energy distinguished the prophet. In him we see an individuality endowed by nature with wonderful spiritual strength, consecrated by a higher power which subdues it, and renders it subservient to itself. Ezekiel is, through his strength, one of the most imposing organs of the Spirit of God in the Old Testament,-a truly gigantic appearance. The glow of the divine indignation, the mighty rushing of the Spirit of the Lord, the holy majesty of Jehovah, as the seer beheld it, are remarkably reflected in his writings. In the clearest and most decided opposition to the present and to the prevailing corrupt spirit of the age, he comes forth with all abruptness and iron consistency. Has he to contend with a people of brazen front and unbending neck? He possesses on his own part an unbending nature, opposing the evil with an unflinching spirit of boldness, with words full of consuming fire. The glowing language of Ezekiel is united with evident perseverance and considerateness. The prophet never passes hurriedly from one subject to another. He is rather completely absorbed in that which lies before him, this he grasps with all his strength; this he examines and penetrates on all sides, and rests not until he has thoroughly exhausted it. He, therefore, often returns to the definite grand leading thoughts by which he is moved. One sees that he lives and moves altogether in these. Incessantly does he hold forth to the deaf ears and hard hearts of the people the one thing needful. The lofty action-the torrent of his eloquence-rests on this combination of power and consistency, the one as unwearied as the other is imposing.

With this peculiarity there is united in Ezekiel the genuine feeling and character of a priest. This appears in Ezekiel in an incomparably stronger manner than in Jeremiah. What Ezekiel is once, to which the Lord has appointed him, that he is with the whole soul. Even as prophet he does not disown his priestly origin and feeling; for he has, with his whole soul, served the Lord in his sanctuary. The circumstances also by which he was surrounded favoured this. Not only because a man of this origin must, from the first, enjoy a certain authority, but also and especially because in him as priest, there was bestowed on the people a real benefit of grace, a constant powerful reminiscence of the sanctuary of the Lord, an awakening call to holy aspirations after the lost tokens of Jehovah's favour. Of this priestly feeling on the part of Ezekiel, we find numerous proofs in his writings, as even the manner of his being called (ch. i.; comp. ch. x.); then ch. viii.-xi., xl.-xlviii.; also in detached passages, as

iv. 13,

Some

iv. 13, sq.; xx. 12, sq.; xxii. 8, 26; xxiv. 16, sq., &c. have seen in this the contracted spirituality of the prophet. Even Ewald asserts that this mode of the prophet's dealing with the subject is only a consequence of the one-sided conception of antiquity, which he obtained merely from books and traditions, as well as of depression of spirit enhanced by the long continuance of the banishment and bondage of the people.' But against this view we maintain, partly that in Ezekiel, even from the beginning of his prophetic appearance, this precise aim is brought forward clearly and definitely; partly that even in the second part of his book, so far from such a depressed state of mind and anxious view, we find much rather a lofty spirit, which, looking away from all the woes and afflictions of the present, lives with joyful animation in the future, and in the re-establishment of the kingdom of God. But there really lies at the foundation of this representation a view of the law, and especially of the connection of the prophets with it, perverted and contrary to Scripture. If we see in the ceremonial law merely forms contracted and contracting, paralyzing the freedom of the spirit, then, of course, entering into them as Ezekiel does, appears of itself to be contractedness of mind. But the law has to the prophets a higher signification, and with what freedom of spirit he enters into it (with all his decided attachment, fidelity, and love to it) is shown by his deep comprehension of the ideas expressed in the ordinances of the law, and of the spiritual value of its forms; so that (as even the section, ch. xl. and seq. testifies) he stands in no slavish dependence on the law, but has clearly understood its signification for the period of the old and that of the new covenant in their unison as well as in their difference.

With an individuality so strongly marked as that of Ezekiel, his close adherence to the Pentateuch is especially interesting. He will stand on nothing else than on that basis laid by God himself, and on this he will proceed to build. No self-will, no false endeavour to be something peculiar, influences him, but there is a true and willing yielding to the divine arrangement of things, an inward organic union with it. The same holds also of the connection in which Ezekiel stands to the other prophets. In a time in which true prophecy was rare (see Ez. xii. 21; comp. Lam. ii. 9), and together with this also the right feeling for its appreciation was visibly decreasing, Ezekiel appealed to those men of God as the ancient witnesses for divine truth (xxxviii. 17), and he will stand no otherwise than in full harmonious unison with them,

See e. g. Gesenius on Is. ii. p. 205; De Wette, Einleit. p. 317, 5th ed.
Die Proph. des Alten Bundes, ii. p. 209.

however

m

however his utterance, viewed superficially and externally, may appear to be altogether foreign and unheard of-a proof how fit the prophet was for his calling, how entirely consecrated he was to it, so thoroughly was he penetrated by the organism and the divinely appointed diadon Twv про¶nTv, the higher all-comprehending unity of the prophetic spirit! In this view the relation of Ezekiel to his older contemporary, Jeremiah, is especially important. Even Ezekiel's entrance on his work stands in the closest connection with him (see the Introd. to the first section); and an abundance of passages refer back to the utterances of Jeremiah. See e. g. iii. 14; vii. 14; xiii. (comp. with Jer. xxiii. 9, sq.); xxxiv. (comp. Jer. xxiii.); xxxvi. 25, sq., &c. This influence of Jeremiah on our prophet extends further, however, than to single utterances in whole thoughts, and in the carrying out and application of them to those times, a remarkable affinity between the two prophets is observable, as even the older theologians often pointed out. Calvin, e. g., admirably says, Neque naturaliter contigit, ut unus Hierosolymæ, alter vero in Chaldæa sic quasi ex uno ore proferrent sua vaticinia, ac si duo cantores alter ad alterius vocem sese componerent. Non potuit enim desiderari melior nec concinnior melodia, quam apparet in istis duobus servis Dei.'" The ancient tradition also among Jews and Christians, according to which Ezekiel was either the son or the servant of Jeremiah, is explained, in respect to its origin, very satisfactorily from the perception of this internal harmony, without there being any need on account of it to suppose any external connection of this kind, or even a determined agreement between the two, as Koster would do.

We find also in Ezekiel, together with superior spiritual endowments, no inconsiderable degree of cultivation, and a certain erudition which his illustrious descent, as well as his priestly station and character, rendered him especially capable of. Traces of this kind meet us in Ezekiel much oftener than in the other prophets, as his very accurate knowledge not only of the law, but also of the history of the people, his acquaintance with foreign nations and their circumstances, his architectural knowledge and the prevalence of subjects belonging to this province clearly testify. For this our prophet is extolled even by the older theolo

m

p. 209.

Movers, De utriusque recens. vatic. Jerem. p. 35, seq.; Ewald (ubi supra), n Nor did it happen naturally that the one at Jerusalem and the other in Chaldæa should thus utter their predictions, as it were, with one mouth, just as two singers naturally adapt their voices to each other. For no better or more perfect harmony could be desired than that which appears in these two servants of God.' P Die Proph. d. A. u. N. T. p. 115.

• See Carpzov. Introd. p. 194.

6

gians. Witsius, e. g., says, 'Fuit sane hic noster vir in eruditione et ingenio eximius, ita ut seposito etiam prophetiæ dono, quod incomparabile est, cum aliis illustribus scriptoribus comparari mereatur, ob pulcherrimas vvoías, comparationes elegantes et magnam rerum multarum, præsertim architecturæ, peritiam.'" In more recent times Ewald (p. 207, sq.) has brought forward and carried out this view in a partial and exaggerated manner, in as much as he affirms an opposition between public life, the living participation in it, and experience of it,' on the one hand; and on the other, simply learned literary life, and the being confined within the narrow bounds of that which is domestic ;' and denying that Ezekiel possesses the former, he accords to him only the latter. Ewald's picture of Ezekiel amounts to that of a formal book-learned recluse. Thus, however, no prophet lived; and with regard to Ezekiel, the contrary may be strikingly shown. A character so energetic as that of Ezekiel cannot possibly be viewed as confining itself within the narrow bounds of such a learned activity. Ezekiel's whole aim is much rather a decidedly practical one. How intimately acquainted he was with life and with its individual circumstances is testified in the clearest manner by his address to the exiles, ch. xii. and seq. His influence over it is no less shown by those statements, from which it appears that Ezekiel framed a middle point for it (see § 1). It was he who essentially regulated the religious circumstances of the people, through whom a new form was remarkably impressed on the whole life, the spiritual tendency of his times. But such results are altogether inconceivable, unless the prophet took the most lively interest in the public life of those times (so far as we can speak of public life as then existing), and, in a period so confused and circumstances so difficult, ruled it with certain glance and grasped it with powerful hand; in order really to rescue that which could be rescued, and as a worthy instrument of the Lord to help forward the end which was to be attained by the punishment of the captivity.

Witsius (1. c.) rightly calls the donum prophetiæ of our prophet 'incomparabile. All his prophecies are penetrated with the same certainty which the prophet shows in reference to his knowledge of the divine decree. His views of the present testify how clearly he has conceived it in his innermost being, how he looks through it on all sides, and knows how to estimate it (comp. especially ch. xiv.). Not less wonderful are his views of the future. In general

Our author was indeed distinguished for his erudition, so that, apart from his gift of prophecy, which is incomparable, he deserves to be compared with other illustrious writers, on account of his most beautiful conceptions, and his great knowledge of many subjects, especially of architecture.'-Witsii Miscell. Sac. i. p. 243.

indeed the prophet conceives it rather in its general features, that is, his view is principally directed to the most comprehensive aspect of the kingdom of God, considered as a whole. But still there are not wanting remarkable instances of his views of particular future events, special predictions on which by their plain fulfilment the seal of the veracity and divine illumination of the prophet is impressed. Of the prophecies directed against foreign nations, those against Tyre and Egypt are especially to be mentioned in this respect (ch. xxvi. sq.). Among the others the announcement of the fate of Zedekiah (xii. 12, sq.), and that relating to the destruction of the city (ch. xxiv. comp. xxxiii.) are pre-eminent. This point is brought forward among the moderns not only by Jahn but even by De Wette," who says, 'in none of the ancient prophets (?) are there found such definite predictions as in this.' Zunz maintains even, that the true prophetic spirit knows no such special prophecies, and hence deduces an argument for the late composition of the book, in which view he certainly stands altogether alone in our times." One can desire no more striking acknowledgment of the extreme perplexity in which this kind of criticism produced in the soil of a crude scepticism, feels itself placed, than that here made. Such a mode of treating the subject cannot reconcile itself to an appearance so sublime, so wonderful, as that of the prophetic spirit of an Ezekiel. It is however precisely that appearance which serves as a splendid testimony against this narrow-minded view, one which asserts in contradiction to all history that the period of the exile may not have been a time of wonders! x

III. Ezekiel's diction and mode of statement are by no means the same throughout, but rather very manifold and variable.

We sometimes find in the prophet a purely didactic diction, in calm development as in the older prophets. This form prevails especially in the section ch. xii.-xix. Here he readily interweaves proverbial expressions (ch. xii.-xviii.). He expounds at the same time, even in detail, sentences of the law (ch. xviii.), in such a manner as is scarcely to be met with earlier. The style is then the common style of prophetic rhetoric, in which the prophet but seldom rises to a poetical elevation, and strictly only there where he inserts real songs, in which the subjective feeling finds expression, as ch. xix., xxvii., xxxii.

Jahn, Einl. ii. p. 589, sq.

t Zunz, Gottesd. Vortr. d. Juden. p. 158.

De Wette, Einl. p. 318.

u In respect to the earlier assaults on the authenticity of single parts of our book, as well as the recent view of Zunz, see the details in my Handb. d. Einl. in d. A. T. vol. ii. pt. ii. [p. 270, sq.]

* Comp. on the other side, my Neuen Krit. Untersuch. üb. Daniel, p. 80, sq. VOL. I.-NO. I.

D

Far