2 "The colli latter opinion is very emphatically expressed by Bacon. sion or thrusting of air, which they will have to be the cause of sound, neither denotes the form nor the latent process of sound; but is a term of ignorance and of superficial contemplation.". Nor can it be justly denied, that an exact and distinct apprehension of the kind of motion of the air by which sound is diffused, was beyond the reach of the ancient philosophers, and made its way into the world long afterwards. It was by no means easy to reconcile the nature of such motion with obvious phenomena. For the process is not evident as motion; since, as Bacon also observes, it does not visibly agitate the flame of a candle, or a feather, or any light floating substance, by which the slightest motions of the air are betrayed. Still, the persuasion that sound is some motion of the air, continued to keep hold of men's minds, and acquired additional distinctness. The illustration employed by Vitruvius, in the following passage, is even now one of the best we can offer. "Voice is breath, flowing, and made sensible to the hearing by striking the air. It moves in infinite circumferences of circles, as when, by throwing a stone into still water, you produce innumerable circles of waves, increasing from the centre and spreading outwards, till the boundary of the space, or some obstacle, prevents their outlines from going further. In the same manner the voice makes its motion in circles. But in water the circle moves breadthways upon a level plain; the voice proceeds in breadth, and also successively ascends in height." Both the comparison, and the notice of the difference of the two cases, prove the architect to have had very clear notions on the subject; which he further shows by comparing the resonance of the walls of a building to the disturbance of the outline of the waves of water when they meet with a boundary, and are thrown back. "Therefore, as in the outlines of waves in water, so in the voice, if no obstacle interrupt the foremost, it does not disturb the second and the following ones, so that all come to the ears of persons, whether high up or low down, without resonance. But when they strike against obstacles, the foremost, being thrown back, disturb the lines of those which follow." Similar analogies were employed by the ancients in order to explain the occurrence of Echoes. Aristotle says, "An Echo takes place, when the air, being as one body in consequence of the vessel which bounds it, and being prevented from being thrust forwards, is reflected 'Hist. Son, et Aud. vol. ix. p. 68. 2 Ibid. 4 3 De Arch. v. 3. * DeAnima, ii. 8. back like a ball." Nothing material was added to such views till modern times. Thus the first conjectures of those who philosophized concerning sound, led them to an opinion concerning its causes and laws, which only required to be distinctly understood, and traced to mechanical principles, in order to form a genuine science of Acoustics. It was, no doubt, a work which required a long time and sagacious reasoners, to supply what was thus wanting; but still, in consequence of this peculiar circumstance in the early condition of the prevalent doctrine concerning sound, the history of Acoustics assumes a peculiar form. Instead of containing, like the history of Astronomy or of Optics, a series of generalizations, each including and rising above preceding generalizations; in this case, the highest generalization is in view from the first; and the object of the philosopher is to determine its precise meaning and circumstances in each example. Instead of having a series of inductive Truths, successively dawning on men's minds, we have a series of Explanations, in which certain experimental facts and laws are reconciled, as to their mechanical principles and their measures, with the general doctrine already in our possession. Instead of having to travel gradually towards a great discovery, like Universal Gravitation, or Luminiferous Undulations, we take our stand upon acknowledged truths, the production and propagation of sound by the motion of bodies and of air; and we connect these with other truths, the laws of motion and the known properties of bodies, as, for instance, their elasticity. Instead of Epochs of Discovery, we have Solutions of Problems; and to these we must now proceed. We must, however, in the first place, notice that these Problems include other subjects than the mere production and propagation of sound generally. For such questions as these obviously occur:what are the laws and cause of the differences of sounds;-of acute and grave, loud and low, continued and instantaneous;—and, again, of the differences of articulate sounds, and of the quality of different voices and different instruments? The first of these questions, in particular, the real nature of the difference of acute and grave sounds, could not help attracting attention; since the difference of notes in this respect was the foundation of one of the most remarkable mathematical sciences of antiquity. Accordingly, we find attempts to explain this difference in the ancient writers on music. In Ptolemy's Harmonics, the third Chapter of the first Book is entitled, "II the acuteness and graveness of notes is produced;" and in this, after noting generally the difference of sounds, and the causes of difference (which he states to be the force of the striking body, the physical constitution of the body struck, and other causes), he comes to the conclusion, that "the things which produce acuteness in sounds, are a greater density and a smaller size; the things which produce graveness, are a greater rarity and a bulkier form." He afterwards explains this so as to include a considerable portion of truth. Thus he says, "That in strings, and in pipes, other things remaining the same, those which are stopped at the smaller distance from the bridge give the most acute note; and in pipes, those notes which come through holes nearest to the mouth-hole are most acute." He even attempts a further generalization, and says that the greater acuteness arises, in fact, from the body being more tense; and that thus "hardness may counteract the effect of greater density, as we see that brass produces a more acute sound than lead." But this author's notions of tension, since they were applied so generally as to include both the tension of a string, and the tension of a piece of solid brass, must necessarily have been very vague. And he seems to have been destitute of any knowledge of the precise nature of the motion or impulse by which sound is produced; and, of course, still more ignorant of the mechanical principles by which these motions are explained. The notion of vibrations of the parts of sounding bodies, does not appear to have been dwelt upon as an essential circumstance; though in some cases, as in sounding strings, the fact is very obvious. And the notion of vibrations of the air does not at all appear in ancient writers, except so far as it may be conceived to be implied in the comparison of aërial and watery waves, which we have quoted from Vitruvius. It is, however, very unlikely that, even in the case of water, the motions of the particles were distinctly conceived, for such conception is far from obvious. The attempts to apprehend distinctly, and to explain mechanically, the phenomena of sound, gave rise to a series of Problems, of which we must now give a brief history. The questions which more peculiarly constitute the Science of Acoustics, are the questions concerning those motions or affections of the air by which it is the medium of hearing. But the motions of sounding bodies have both so much connexion with those of the medium, and so much resemblance to them, that we shall include in our survey researches on that subject also. THAT CHAPTER II. PROBLEM OF THE VIBRATIONS OF STRINGS. 1 HAT the continuation of sound depends on a continued minute and rapid motion, a shaking or trembling, of the parts of the sounding body, was soon seen. Thus Bacon says, "The duration of the sound of a bell or a string when struck, which appears to be prolonged and gradually extinguished, does not proceed from the first percussion; but the trepidation of the body struck perpetually generates a new sound. For if that trepidation be prevented, and the bell or string be stopped, the sound soon dies: as in spinets, as soon as the spine is let fall so as to touch the string, the sound ceases." In the case of a stretched string, it is not difficult to perceive that the motion is a motion back and forwards across the straight line which the string occupies when at rest. The further examination of the quantitative circumstances of this oscillatory motion was an obvious problem; and especially after oscillations, though of another kind (those of a pendulous body), had attracted attention, as they had done in the school of Galileo. Mersenne, one of the promulgators of Galileo's philosophy in France, is the first author in whom I find an examination of the details of this case (Harmonicorum Liber, Paris, 1636). He asserts, that the differences and concords of acute and grave sounds depend on the rapidity of vibrations, and their ratio; and he proves this doctrine by a series of experimental comparisons. Thus he finds that the note of a string is as its length, by taking a string first twice, and then four times as long as the original string, other things remaining the same. This, indeed, was known to the ancients, and was the basis of that numerical indication of the notes which the proposition expresses. Mersenne further proceeds to show the effect of thickness and tension. He finds (Prop. 7) that a string must be four times as thick as another, to give the octave below; he finds, also (Prop. 8), that the tension must be about four times as great in order to produce the octave above. From these proportions various others are deduced, and the law of the 2 1 Hist. Son. et Aud. vol. ix. p. 71. 2 L. i. Prop. 15. 3 L. ii. Prop. 6. phenomena of this kind may be considered as determined. Mersenne also undertook to measure the phenomena numerically, that is to determine the number of vibrations of the string in each of such cases; which at first might appear difficult, since it is obviously impossible to count with the eye the passages of a sounding string backwards and forwards. But Mersenne rightly assumed, that the number of vibrations is the same so long as the tone is the same, and that the ratios of the numbers of vibrations of different strings may be determined from the numerical relations of their notes. He had, therefore, only to determine the number of vibrations of one certain string, or one known note, to know those of all others. He took a musical string of three-quarters of a foot long, stretched with a weight of six pounds and five eighths, which he found gave him by its vibrations a certain standard note in his organ: he found that a string of the same material and tension, fifteen feet, that is, twenty times as long, made ten recurrences in a second; and he inferred that the number of vibrations of the shorter string must also be twenty times as great; and thus such a string must make in one second of time two hundred vibrations. 4 This determination of Mersenne does not appear to have attracted due notice; but some time afterwards attempts were made to ascertain the connexion between the sound and its elementary pulsations in a more direct manner. Hooke, in 1681, produced sounds by the striking of the teeth of brass wheels, and Stancari, in 1706, by whirling round a large wheel in air, showed, before the Academy of Bologna, how the number of vibrations in a given note might be known. Sauveur, who, though deaf for the first seven years of his life, was one of the greatest promoters of the science of sound, and gave it its name of Acoustics, endeavored also, about the same time, to determine the number of vibrations of a standard note, or, as he called it, Fixed Sound. He employed two methods, both ingenious and both indirect. The first was the method of beats. Two organ-pipes, which form a discord, are often heard to produce a kind of howl, or wavy noise, the sound swelling and declining at small intervals of time. This was readily and rightly ascribed to the coincidences of the pulsations of sound of the two notes after certain cycles. Thus, if the number of vibrations of the notes were as fifteen to sixteen in the same time, every fifteenth vibration of the one would coincide with every six 4 Life, p. xxiii, |