lages," and then providing for the transferring of a certain number of promising boys, of twelve to fourteen years of age, from these schools, after an examination at Stuttgard, to the lower, or grammar department of the cloister schools, which were also established by the same Order on the endowments of the secularized convents, and which were organized internally with special reference to the service of the church,-the wants of parents for the lowest as well as the highest classes of the gymnasium were met. We accordingly find, in 1607, 47 Latin schools, with 75 teachers, and 18 cloister schools, in operation; and even as late as 1700 only one regular gymnasium under the designation of the Padagogium, at Stuttgard, existed in Wurtemberg. Parents found facilities of a higher education, and of the preliminary University preparation in the Latin schools, and the wise provision of a state examination for the admission of a certain number of promising pupils from these schools, with free tuition, board, and even pocket-money, kept them all up to a common standard of excellence, and at the same time provided the cloister schools with a select corps of students, who, if they profited by these facilities, could enter, after a similar examination, the University with the assurance that if diligent there, appointments in church, school, or civil service would follow after graduation.

With this organic connection of the higher schools, and the stimulus and regulation of their public examination, the Latin school of the Reformation has, in Wurtemberg, survived similar schools in other states. Many of these schools, although poorly endowed, and having pupils of all ages from seven to fourteen, have gained such reputation by the success of their candidates at the state examinations, as to attract pupils from all parts of the country. These examinations, held at the capital, drew together teachers and scholars, with their friends and relatives, and made education, its principles and methods, the topic of conversation in every circle, and helped to diffuse a more general appreciation of its importance than existed in any other community. They have proved highly serviceable in securing immediate attention to any defect or proposed improvement throughout all the schools.

In the programme of instruction for the usual course of four years, (from the eighth to the twelfth,) we find the following subjects of study given: German and Latin reading and writing for the lowest class; Latin grammar with selections from authors; prosody, rudiments of Greek, in the fourth year with music, chiefly sacred. No separate hours are mentioned as being devoted to religious instruction, as the religious exercises every day amply met this want. Of Latin authors, Æsop, Terence, and Cicero were read. Of the 36 school hours per week, 6 were devoted to music, and 3 to religious exercises, leaving 27 hours for Latin, which were reduced to 21 in the fourth year, when 6 hours were given to Greek. The scholars were obliged to speak Latin in school hours, and with teachers and pupils out of school hours. This course of instruction was only slightly modified for near two centuries, when Greek fell more and

more into the background, whilst the memorizing of logical rhetorical definitions in Latin became a favorite study.

The teachers (generally one to a school) were originally appointed by the communal authorities, after having first undergone an examination before the ecclesiastical board (Kirchenrath), whilst, if there was sufficient cause, the communal authorities might dismiss a teacher at any time without giving notice. A teacher formally examined and accepted was installed in his office in the name of the Duke, and had solemnly to declare his adherence to the tenets of the Augsburg and the Wurtemberg confessions, and in later years also to the "formula concordiæ," (designed originally to harmonize the special adherents of Luther and Melancthon, and had its origin in Wurtemberg about 1575). Gradually, the communal authorities not having any preference, the privilege of selecting the teacher passed into the hands of the state and church authorities.

The salary of the teacher consisted of: 1, the school fees; 2, a fixed salary paid quarterly, partly in kind (feed, wine, fruit), out of the local funds, and in the few exceptional cases where these where too poor to pay the whole sum, the deficiency was made up by a subsidy from government; 3, residence or free lodging, and the privileges of citizenship, Their salary was not taxed, and no soldier could be quartered on them. For cases of incapacity for service by old age or sickness, no provision was made, except in the Stuttgard gymnasium. Not unfrequently the commune voluntarily contributed to such needs. For the widows and orphans, a widows' fund was instituted in 1698, to which each teacher paid an annual subscription. As regards his social position, the master of the Latin school stood midway between the elementary school teacher and the clergyman.

The Latin schools were communal institutions subsidized by the gov ernment; but the law laid on the communes certain duties with regard to these schools, i. e., to provide a school-house, furniture, &c.; and the general superintendence was exercised by a quarterly visitation by the Pædagogarchi," i. e. the governing board of the Pædagogium at Stuttgard and Tübingen. These two institutions, which were also municipal, and were originally Latin schools, more than other schools of this class, were devoted to preparing pupils for the University, and stood under the immediate superintendence of the University authorities, and were maintained entirely from the goverment treasury. The course of instruction, both from their locality and their specific object, was naturally more extended. Besides the study of Latin grammar, prosody, and the reading of Cicero, Terence, and Æsop, portions of Virgil, Ovid, Xenophon, Aristotle (Organon), Plutarch, Isocrates, Demosthenes, were read (the last mostly in Latin translations). The course also embraced dialectics, rhetoric, mathematics, modern Latin authors (i. e. Frischlin's comedies), reading of theological works, catechisms, the Psalms, the gospels in Greek and Latin, and from the year 1686, also physics, astron

omy, ethics, logic, metaphysics, history, poetry, and mythology. The study in Greek was reduced to the reading of the New Testament, and in some cases Chrysostomos de sacerdotis. We find here a chaos of different subjects crowded into about 30 hours a week, Latin, of course, occupying the first place, and all the text-books in other subjects were written in Latin. This study was restricted principally to Cicero, no mention being made of Sallust, Cæsar, Livy, Horace, or Tacitus.

Cloister Schools.

The Cloister Schools deserve special attention, as more than half the students at the University were prepared in them. These schools, divided into lower (which were also called grammar) and higher, prepared young men for the Protestant church and school, and had, down to 1806, a decidedly monastic character. The course of instruction of 19 to 27. hours per week had special reference to the future calling of the pupils, by devoting many hours to the reading of the Old and New Testaments, dialectics and rhetoric. Gradually Hebrew became an important subject of study, whilst Greek was gradually neglected. We also find "lectio sphærica," arithmetic, geography, modern languages, and for the older scholars, morals and metaphysics. History was taught merely in connection with the church, and was simply read aloud during dinner; at a later period, universal and special history were taught in text-books in regular lecture hours. Music, especially church music, was always an important branch.

It was in the discipline more than in the studies that the monastic and theological character of these institutions appeared. At the head of the institution was the Prelate, a high church dignitary, ex-officio member of the estates, Ducal councilor, to whom was at the same time intrusted the management of the extensive convent property. Instruction was mostly imparted by two theologically-educated preceptors, (called after 1752, professors,) originally appointed by the prelates, but later by the ecclesiastical board. There were daily morning and evening services in the church; choir singing twice a day, reading of religious books during dinner time, and frequent celebration of the holy communion; services on Sunday in the morning and afternoon, and reading of the scriptures at other stated times. Pupils were not allowed to take walks outside of the inclosure, except on special permission from the director, for which application had frequently to be expressed in Latin verses. The pupils wore a prescribed dress, consisting of a long black gown (toga monastica) without sleeves. Manifold were the evil consequences of this too rigid discipline, encouraging hypocrisy and secret vices; whilst the hospitality exercised towards all friends and relatives of the pupils formed a pleasant feature and reminiscence of the olden times.

The superintendence of these institutions by the ecclesiastical board was very lax, and the visitations which ought to have taken place every year were frequently omitted for successive years, and no reform of any importance whatsoever was introduced till 1806.

The number of secondary schools in Wurtemberg, in 1803, was as follows: 4 cloister schools, 1 gymnasium, and about 60 Latin schools of from 1 to 3 classes. Besides these there were 3 real schools connected with other institutions, which had no separate school-houses, teachers, or funds.

II. PRESENT ORGANIZATION.

1. Classification-Authorities-Maintenance.

The numerical increase and the new organization of the secondary schools in Wurtemberg since 1806 can be traced to two causes: first the territorial increase of the country, mostly by Catholic provinces; secondly, the totally different educational views which have gained ground. The number of the thoroughly-organized gymnasiums gradually rose to seven (7), of which three were specially established for the Catholic population. Besides the gymnasiums, 4 lyceums were founded which differ from the former only that the two highest classes are wanting, although the pupils frequently enter the University directly from the lyceum. The 4 Protestant cloister schools, which, in 1806, had been reduced to two, were again established; and in all the chief towns of the newly-acquired territory, Latin Schools of one, two, or three classes were established.

The directors of the cloister schools (called seminaries since 1806) bear the title of ephori. The two regular teachers (professors) have two assistants called repeaters [répétiteurs ;] there are special instructors in music, singing, drawing and gymnastics. The directors of the gymnasiums, lyceums, and also of some of the larger Latin schools have the title of rector; the teachers of 4 higher classes are called "professors; " of the lower classes sometimes professors and sometimes preceptors; the teachers of the Latin schools are called preceptors and Collaboratoren. In those places where there are more than two classes, the teacher of the higher class is called ober præceptor.

Connected with the larger schools there are preparatory schools, the teachers of which are called elementary teachers. The aim of these schools is to prepare pupils between the ages of six and eight, who wish afterwards to resort to some higher institution than the common elementary schools, and instruct them in reading, writing, arithmetic, and Bible history.

As teachers for this class of schools could no longer be trained in connection with their theological studies, a philological seminary was founded in connection with the University, and the examinations were regulated in such a manner as to exercise an influence on the studies of candidates for teachers' places. Since 1842 the social and financial position of teachers has been greatly improved; and as official persons they are authorized to wear a prescribed dress, which, however, but few do.

The privilege of electing teachers has, with very few exceptions, been transferred to the central authority. The financial position of these institutions has been so far altered that those portions of the salaries which

came from the church funds are, since 1806, (when the church and state funds were united,) paid from the common state fund.

As regards the maintenance of these schools the following is the general rule all those schools in which the pupils are not kept beyond their 14th year, i. e., the Latin school in country towns, and the lower classes of the lyceums, gymnasiums and real schools, are communal institutions; the expense of founding and maintaining these devolving in the first place on the communes: the state making special grants in aid, in all cases of real necessity, both in founding and maintaining such schools. Higher institutions on the other hand are considered entirely state institutions, without depriving the communes altogether of the privilege of paying something towards their maintenance. The sums used for these purposes depend, of course, on the appropriations of the parliament (Stände) which are always made for a fiscal period of three years. 2. Classical or Humanistic Institutions [Gelehrtenschulen.]

a. Course of instruction.-From the old programme, Hebrew, logic, and rhetoric disappeared, whilst German, French, geography, history, singing and gymnastics, form regular subjects; religious instruction has ceased to be mere memorizing, and is, in most cases, intrusted to the care of the clergy, and since 1822 it forms one of the subjects at the central examinations (land examen); an hour is set apart to penmanship; decimal fractions are taught, and the whole subject of arithmetic is made more thorough and methodical; while Latin is not pursued so far as formerly, and Latin speaking has ceased altogether, more attention is given to Greek. The subjects and course of instruction at a Latin school for scholars between the ages of 12 and 14, is generally as follows: Latin, 12-15 hours per week; French, 2-3; religion, 2; history and geography, 3; arithmetic, 2-4; singing, 1; penmanship, 1; German, 1-2; gymnastics, 3-4; total, (exclusive of gymnastics) 26-31 hours. This number of hours is diminished in schools with scholars of different ages by about 6 hours, whilst for those who study Greek, from 3-6 hours are added.

In the complete gymnasium, where the classes of scholars are nearly of the same age and proficiency, for instance at the gymnasium of Tübingen, the programme of studies for scholars between the ages of 13 and 14 would be the following: Latin, 12 hours; Greek, 6; French, 2; German, 1; religion, 2; history and geography, 3; arithmetic, 2; singing, 1; penmanship, 1; gymnastics, 3; total, 33. The books read are mostly selections from different authors; Livy, Cicero, Cornelius Nepos, Cæsar, Curtius, in Latin; and Xenophon, Isocrates, Thucydides, Plato, Diodorus, Arrian, Lucian, &c., in Greek.

There is no uniform plan of studies prescribed by law for all the gymnasiums, as in Prussia, but as a general rule they all follow the same plan. The curriculum for certain studies, such as poetry, law, and Greek, is not obligatory, and its place is mostly taken by French. Otherwise the distinction between obligatory and optional branches of study has ceased to exist, with exception of English, French, and Hebrew. Be