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eigners were, at an early period, some remarkable exceptions. Petrarch began at his fifteenth year, and in a strange city.

As a rule, the student limited himself to the lectures upon Roman law, or added lectures upon canon law only; to connect other studies with these was, at first, very unusual. Only the lectures upon the art of a notary may, exceptionally, have been attended by jurists also. The notaries formed, in all important cities, their own guilds, choosing their own officers, and being especially careful that new members should be qualified. Such a guild of notaries may have already existed at Bologna at a very early period. But here it happened, through imitation of the famous law-school in the same place, that they also took the form of such a school, had their own lectures, and gave the degree of doctor. As now their business stood in close connection with the jurists proper, their school may very readily have been looked upon as a part of the law-school; they even read the Institutes often, and it is probable that in the same manner, many jurists attended their lectures, which may have been regarded as a practical branch.

Let us now inquire into the mode of conducting a single lecture. The teacher was accustomed to give, at first, a summary of the whole chapter; in each passage he first read the text, according to his opinion of the correct form of it; to a complete exposition of the text belonged first its casus; then the explanation of apparent contradictions in other places; the general law principles therein involved; finally, real or fictitious cases to which it applied, which last, if they were to occupy too much time, were referred to the "repetitions." This was the general plan, which, however, was not strictly carried out in individual cases, as the printed lectures of Azo and Odofredus show, but was modified according to the demands of each particular case. Odofredus boasts of himself

that he explained the whole, without omission, and the glosses, as well as the text. As to the delivery of the lectures, general rules can be given for those times no more than for ours. With many lectures, however, it is evident at a glance that they must have been delivered with perfect freedom; e. g. the lectures of Odofredus, in which the vivacity and familiarity, and at the same time the carelessness of oral delivery are not to be overlooked. Carefully polished lectures are common enough, but such polish was, as will be readily seen, not given to the whole course, but to the exposition of particular passages.

As to the students' occupation in the lecture-rooms, it appears that taking notes was just as general as at present, of which we have evidence in the frequent printing of the same. In this respect differing from the German customs, the students could interrupt and ask questions during the lectures, but this was not usual, though sometimes practiced in the morning, i. e. during the regular lectures. But at the present day, in Italy, a student will sometimes ask the lecturer if he has rightly understood some word.

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN FRANCE.

INTRODUCTION.

THE Empire of France, [exclusive of the colonies,] on an area of 206,676 English square miles in 1866, had a population of 38,067,094. In 1856, there were, among a total population of 36,012,669: 19,064,071 employed in agriculture, 10,469,961 in mechanical arts, and 1,632,331 in commercial pursuits.

The total expenditure in 1867 amounted to 1,902,111,370 francs, of which sum 28,344,121 francs were expended for public instruction under the following ministries, and with the following statistics: FIRST-UNDer the MinisTRY OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION:

1. Primary Instruction.

53,957 Public Schools, in 37,548 Communes, with 2,461,492 pupils.
16,714 Private Elementary Schools, with 978,258 pupils.

3,669 Infant Schools, with 432,141 pupils.

32,383 Adult Courses, with 829,555 scholars.

Total, 106,723 Schools, with 4,701,446 scholars.

2. Secondary Instruction.

83 Lyceums, with 36,306 students.

253 Communal Colleges, with 32,453 students-making a total of 336
government schools, with 68,759 students, of whom 17,209 follow
the Special Secondary Course.

934 Non-governmental Secondary Schools, with 77,906 students.
Total, 1,270 Institutions, with 146,664 students.

8. Superior Instruction.

8 Faculties or Schools of Theology, with 46 professors.

11 Faculties of Law, with 100 professors and 4,895 students.

16 Faculties of Science, with 119 professors.

16 Faculties of Literature, with 102 professors.

22 Preparatory Schools of Medicine and Pharmacy, with 190 professors. 8 Higher Schools of Medicine, with 66 professors and 1,780 students. Total, 76 Institutions of the highest instruction, with 603 professors. 4. Special Schools.

1 Normal School for Teachers in Infant Asylums at Paris.

1 Superior Normal School for Professors in Lyceums and the Faculties of Letters and Science at Paris, with 110 pupils and 23 professors. 1 Normal School for Secondary Special Instruction at Cluny.

84 Primary Normal Schools for male teachers, with 449 professors.

12 Primary Normal Schools for female teachers.

1 Primary Normal Course for male teachers, with 12 professors.

49 Primary Normal Courses for female teachers.

8 Schools of Living Oriental Tongues, with 9 professors.

1 Course of Archæology in connection with Cabinet of Medals.

1 French School of Archæology and Greek Literature at Athens.

1 Imperial School of Records (ecole des chartes) at Paris, to prepare pupils for librarians and keepers of public archives.

1 Museum of Natural History at Paris, with 16 professors.

1 School of Sacred Music at Paris.

1 Imperial College of France, with 31 professors.

1 Special School of Drawing for Young Women at Paris.

1 National Conservatory of Music at Paris: 87 professors.

6 Provincial Schools of Music: 6 professors, (at Dijon, Nantes, Metz, Lille, Toulouse, Marseilles.)

1 Institution for the Blind at Paris, besides 6 provincial schools.

2 National Institutions for Deaf-mutes at Paris and Bordeaux, besides 41 private and municipal schools.

1 Central Correctional House of Education at Paris.

SECOND.-MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE, AND PUBLIC WORKS:

3 Imperial Schools of Agriculture at Grand-Jouan, Grignon, and La Saulsaie, with 24 professors.

9 Agricultural Courses, with 11 professors.

1 National Agronomic Institute at Versailles.

70 School-farms.

1 Practical School of Irrigation and Drainage at Lizardeau ; 2 professors. 1 National School of Horse-breeding.

3 Imperial Sheep-folds and Cow-houses (bergeries and vacheries.)

3 Schools of Veterinary Surgery at Alfort, Lyons, Toulouse, with 18 professors.

1 Superior School of Commerce at Paris; 1 School of Chamber of Commerce at Paris.

1 Imperial School of Bridges and Roads at Paris; 22 professors.

3 Imperial Schools of Mines, viz., at Paris, 15 professors; at St. Etienne, 3 professors; at Alais, 1 professor.

1 Imperial Conservatory of Arts and Industry at Paris; 19 professors. 1 Central School of Arts and Manufactures at Paris; 28 professors.

3 Imperial Schools of Arts and Industry, at Aix, Angers, Chalons-surMarne; 32 professors.

School of Watchmaking at Cluses (Savoy,) besides several provincial schools.

THIRD. MINISTRY OF WAR:

1 Imperial Polytechnic School at Paris; 22 professors, 19 assistants, and 350 pupils.

1 Special Military School at St. Cyr; 33 professors.

1 Staff-school (ecole du corps d'etat-major) at Paris; 19 professors.

1 School of Artillery and Military Engineering [ecole d'application de l'artillerie et du genie] at Metz, with 28 professors.

1 Imperial School of Cavalry at Saumur; 40 professors.

1 Cavalry-musicians' school [ecole de trompettes) at Saumur.

1 Imperial School of Military Medicine and Pharmacy at Paris; 13 pro

fessors.

1 Imperial School for the Sanitary Service at Strasburg; 12 professors.

1 Normal Shooting-school (ecole normale de tir;) 11 teachers.

1 Normal School of Military Gymnastics at Vincennes; 3 teachers.

1 Imperial Prytaneum (orphans of officers) at La Flèche; 25 professors. 11 Regimental Schools of Artillery.

3 Regimental Schools of Engineering.

5 Military Gymnasiums.

1 Military Musical Gymnasium at Paris.

1 Bureau of Longitudes; 6 professors.

1 Imperial Observatory; 18 professors, assistants and calculators. Regimental schools for the infantry of the line exist in all the corps. FOURTH.-MINISTRY OF MARINE and the COLONIES:

1 School of Naval Architecture at Paris, with 30 pupils; 3 professors. 1 Practical School of Maritime Engineering at L'Orient; 9 professors. 1 Imperial Naval School at Brest; 11 professors.

42 National Schools of Hydrography; 42 professors.

3 Imperial Schools of Naval Pharmacy and Medicine at Brest, Rochefort, and Toulon; 15 professors.

6 Nautical School-ships; 5 Naval Apprentice Schools; 2 Schools for Naval Engineers and Stokers; 2 Naval Drawing Schools.

FIFTH.-MINISTRY OF FINANCE:

1 Imperial School of Forestry at Nancy; 8 professors.

1 School of the Manufacture of Tobacco at Paris; 7 professors. SIXTH.-MINISTRY OF THE FINE ARTS and the IMPERIAL HOUSEHOLD:

4 Imperial Schools of the Fine Arts; at Paris, Rome, Lyons, and Dijon. 1 National Special School of Drawing and Mathematics applied to the Industrial Arts, at Paris.

IV.

SUPERIOR AND PROFESSIONAL INSTRUCTION.

(1.) General Organization-Faculties and Institutions. (2.) Letters and Sciences. (3.) Theology. (4.) Law. (5.) Medicine and Surgery. (6.) Institutions outside of the Faculties. (7.) Laboratories and New Practical School of Higher Studies. (8.) Proposed Re-organization. SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION in France is administered by the State in: 1. Faculties, each with its corps of professors and teachers sufficient to impart instruction to the number of students in letters, sciences, theology, law, or medicine; 2. Institutions devoted to higher studies and original research; 3. Institutions devoted to science and special public service; 4. Institutions to promote discoveries in science and the highest culture in art.

The five Faculties, in their original constitution parts of a local university, are now situated in the chief centers of population in the several academies (18 since 1868,) into which, for educational administration, the 86 departments (into which the whole of France is divided for civil purposes,) are grouped. Although each faculty is not represented in any one center, except in the Academy of Paris and Strasbourg, there are a sufficient number of each, with an adequate teaching force, at convenient* localities, to meet in the main, the demands of the population; and where there is not, large towns are authorized, under certain guarantees of build. ings and salary, to establish auxiliary colleges of superior instruction.

Each faculty has its own halls for lectures and material equipment of instruction, its dean, professors, and teachers of different grades, varying in different academies, but all equipped to teach physics, chemistry, mathematics, and natural history. Each academy, embracing several faculties, has its own rector, council, and inspector, and all are subordinate to the Minister of Publie Instruction, who, since 1824, has performed all the functions of the headmaster of the University.

(2.) The faculty of letters, of which there is one in each academy district, has a varying teaching force; in Paris, eleven full professors, four adjunct professors, and several associates, or fellows, who are candidates for vacant chairs, and in the smaller academy centres, not half this number; but in each faculty, provision is made for philosophy, history, ancient literature and modern literature, both French and foreign.

The faculty of sciences, of which there is one in each academy, possesses, in Paris, seventeen full professors, and seven associate teachers of different grades, and in less populous centers, from five to six chairs. Instruction in pure and applied mathematics, physics, chemistry, geology, mineralogy, and other natural sciences, must be given in all.

(3.) Theology† has seven seats of faculties, five for the Catholics and two for the Protestants. The seats of the two Protestant faculties are Montauban and Stras

This portion of the French System of Public Instruction is treated in its historical development and present detail of organization, studies, professors, methods, discipline, degrees, &c., in the Special Treatise on Universities and other Institutions of Superior Instruction in Different Countries.

↑ We follow, in this summary, Prof. Arnold in his chapter on Superior Instruction in Schools and Universities on the Continent.

burg. The chairs of these faculties are nowhere more than seven or fewer than five. The subjects common to them all are dogmatic theology, ecclesiastical history, and (I here use the French titles) éloquence sacrée, and morale évangélique. The faculty of theology, which has in all 42 chairs, is the least important of all the faculties in France, because the Church of Rome does not recognize its decrees, and they have no canonical validity. Of course, for those who aspire to be professors in this faculty, its degrees and attendance at its lectures are indispensable; and by an ordinance of the Government of 1830 its degrees are required for all ecclesiastical preferment down to the post of curé de chef-lieu de canton inclusive.

(4.) Law has eleven seats of faculties, with 98 chairs. The great chairs in this faculty are those for the Code Napolion, Roman law, civil procedure, commercial law, administrative law. The Code Napoléon has to itself six chairs at Paris and three in each of the other ten seats of faculties. Two of these ten, Nancy and Douai, have been recently added, and the reader may like to know how an additional faculty, when wanted, is provided. The town of Nancy, already the seat of an academy, of a faculty of sciences, and of a faculty of letters, desired a faculty of law also, Lorraine having formerly, under its old sovereigns, possessed one. The State agreed to establish one there, the municipality of Nancy undertaking on its part to raise every year and pay to the treasury a sum reimbursing the State for its outlay on the new faculty, its professors, agrégés, and courses of lectures. Donai got its faculty of law on the same terms. The State gives the character of a national institution, the guarantee of publicly appointed teachers, and the privilege of conferring degrees; and the town is abundantly willing to pay for this.

No one in France can practice as a barrister (avocat) without the degree of licentiate of law. No one can practice as a solicitor (avoué) without the certificat de capacité en droit. A licentiate of law must first have got the degree of bachelor of law. To get this he must have the degree of bachelor of letters, have then attended two years' lectures in a faculty of law and undergone two examinations, one in Justinian's Institutes, the other in the Code Napoléon, the Penal Code, and the Codes of Civil Procedure and Criminal Instruction. Dues for lectures, examinations, and the diploma, make the diploma of bachelor of law cost, when the candidate has obtained it, nearly 251. The new bachelor must then, in order to become licentiate, follow a third year's lectures in a faculty of law, undergo two more examinations, the first on the Institutes of Justinian again, the second on the Code Napoléon, the Code of Commerce, and adminis trative law, and must support theses on questions of Roman and French Law. The degree of licentiate costs 24l. A solicitor, to obtain the certificate of capacity in law,' must for one year have attended lectures in a faculty of law, embrac ing in this one year both the first and the second year's course of lectures on the Code Napoléon, and on Civil and Criminal Procedure, and undergoing an examination on the subject of each course. The cost of this certificate, all fees for lectures, &c., included, is from 11 to 12. The professors in the faculty of law are men eminent in the knowledge of their several branches.

(5.) Medicine has three great seats of faculties, with 61 chairs. The faculties are at Paris, Montpellier, and Strasburg. To be a physician or surgeon in France, a man must have the diploma of doctor either in medicine or in surgery. To obtain this, he must have attended four years' lectures in a faculty of medicine, and had two years' practice in a hospital. When he presents himself for the first year's lectures, he must produce the diploma of bachelor of letters; when for the third, that of bachelor of sciences, a certain portion of the mathematics generally required for this degree being in his case cut away. He must pass eight examinations, and at the end of his course he must support a thesis before his faculty. His diploma, by the time he gets it, has cost him a little over 501. A medical man with a doctor's degree may practise throughout France. To practise without it, a man must have the diploma of officier de santé. To practise without the diploma either of doctor or of officier de santé is penal. The officier de santé must have attended three years' lectures in a faculty, and had two years' practice in a hospital, and he must pass five examinations and write a paper bearing on one of the subjects of his instruction. Before he can be admitted to attend lectures in a faculty of medicine he must produce a certificat d'examen de grammaire, a sort of minor bachelor of arts degree, turning on the matters taught in quatrième, the highest class in the grammar division of the

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