JOHN LOCKE.

JOHN LOCKE, born in 1632, and educated at the Westminster School, and Christ College, Oxford, published in 1693 his "Thoughts upon the Education of Children," which soon passed through many editions and was translated into the French, Dutch, and German languages, and has had great influence on the views and practices of parents and teachers in different countries. The main end and aims of education are declared to be, a sound mind in a sound body, as the condition of a happy state in this world, the superiority of virtue to intellectual ability, and the value of good manners and practical common sense over great learning, especially in the languages and literature of the past. He enjoins the study of French before Latin, and in teaching language generally follows the methods of Ratich, Comenius, and Montaigne. He utterly eschews Latin versification, and would make the mastery of any language the occasion and medium for learning geography, chronology, and history. He urges strongly the acquisition of drawing, "as that which helps a man often to express in a few lines well put together, what a whole sheet of paper in writing would not be able to represent and make intelligible." Arithmetic, "of which a man can not have too much"; geometry, and astronomy with the use of the globes; geography and history associated; ethics and the principles of jurisprudence; grammar, rhetoric, and logic; the early and frequent practice of English composition, and the critical study of the English language, beyond any other; natural philosophy, "with such writings as treat of husbandry, planting, gardening, and the like," and the higher mathematics and physics as treated of by the incomparable Mr. Newton, constitute the subjects of the course of instruction which he recommends to the young gentlemen of England, under private tutors, in preference to the public and collegiate system, which Bacon, Milton and Cowley prefer.

Associated with these intellectual and moral studies, dancing, music, and fencing, and the acquisition of some art or mechanical trade (painting, gardening, joinery, working in iron, brass and silver, grinding and polishing optical glasses, are specified, and in one or more of these every child and youth should be exercised every day until dexterity and skill in a hundred ways are acquired), and especially a practical knowledge of book-keeping or merchants' accounts, are treated of with much detail.

ADAM SMITH.

ADAM SMITH, in his "Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations," first published in 1776, devotes several chapters to Expenditures on Institutions for the Education of Youth, in which he criticises severely "the practice of the Schools and Universities, of giving exclusive attention to studies which concern only one profession and interest, and of omitting so many things which humanize the mind, soften the temper and dispose it for performing all the duties of public and private life." In place of the little Latin, so commonly and so imperfectly taught to the few, he advises "instruction to all in the elementary parts of geometry and mechanics. There is scarce a common trade which does not afford some opportunity of applying to it the principles of geometry and mechanics, and which would not therefore gradually exercise and improve the common people in these principles, the necessary introduction to the most sublime as well as the most useful sciences."

JOHN ANDERSON AND THE ANDERSONIAN UNIVERSITY.

JOHN ANDERSON, the founder of the Andersonian Institution of Glasgow, and one of the earliest promoters of popular instruction in science, was born in the parish of Roseneath, Dumbartonshire, in 1726. After an elementary education in Sterling, and a more advanced course in the University of Glasgow, he was appointed Professor of Oriental Languages there in 1756, and of Natural Philosophy in 1760. He illustrated his college lectures in the latter branch by the results of observations in the workshops of Glasgow. To carry out his views of instruction, he commenced a class, which he called his anti-toga class, of artisans, who were allowed to attend in their working dress. He entered into the republican spirit of the French Revolution, and presented to the National Convention an improvement in the carriage of the cannon, and suggested the carrying of newspapers by balloons, over territory cut off by cordon of troops. In 1786, he published a popular work entitled "Institutes of Physics," and later, "Essays on War and Military Instruments." He died Jan. 13, 1796, having devised just before his death his whole property to establish in Glasgow the Andersonian University.

The ANDERSONIAN UNIVERSITY was designed by the will (dated May 5, 1795) of Prof. John Anderson, to become an institution in which should be perpetuated the popular courses of instruction instituted by him for the benefit of the artisans of Glasgow, while he was Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University. His plan was more comprehensive (embracing the four academic departments) than his estate enabled the Trustees (81 members, who were elected for life, unless disqualified by non-attendance) to carry out, and operations were commenced in 1797 by the establishment of a Professorship of Natural Philosophy, of which Dr. Thomas Garnett was the first incumbent. His first course was delivered in the autumn of 1796, in the Trades'-hall, to an audience of over one thousand persons of both sexes. Dr. Garnett was succeeded by Dr. George Birkbeck in 1799, who established a special course for practical mechanics in Glasgow, who attended to the number of five hundred. On his removal to London in 1804, he was succeeded by Dr. Andrew Ure, who added to the courses of the institution one in Chemistry applied to the Arts, and held his position till 1830.

The Lectures of Prof. Anderson, Dr. Garnett, and Dr. Birkbeck, are generally considered as the origin of Mechanic Institutes. Both Lord Brougham and Dr. Birkbeck, in their advocacy of the establishment of these Institutes, were in the habit of citing these lectures and the attendance of mechanics on them, as the best evidence of the value of this method of instruction for the working classes. Prof. Anderson, in particular, deserves the eulogium of Dr. Birkbeck, "of having opened the temple of science to the hard laboring mechanic and artisan.”

The original estate, beyond the valuable library and apparatus valued at $15,000, was only sufficient to purchase a single building in John street, which in 1828 was exchanged for the City Grammar School buildings, which were enlarged and refitted for the purposes of the museums, library, and class-rooms of the institution. The subjects now taught by fifteen professors, are Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, Natural History, Drawing, Mathematics, Veterinary Surgery, besides a full course of Medicine, and other studies which constitute a modern curriculum of science, for which 2,000 tickets (3s.) are sold annually.

ANDERSON-RUMFORD-BIRKBECK-BROUGHAM.

Under the influence of the tried success of the Andersonian Lectures (1793 and 1795) and the Mechanics' Institute at Glasgow, the Royal Institution (Rumford in 1799) and Mechanics' Institute (Birkbeck and Brougham in 1823) at London, the Society of Arts (Horner in 1821) at Edinburgh, and similar institutions were established in different parts of the kingdom to the number of 800 in 1828, which had increased under different names, and with modifications of aims and methods, but all substantially and avowedly directed to the scientific and technical instruction of the members, who were largely made up of working men, to 4,000 associations in 1868. The most potent appeals in summoning the mechanics to this work, were made by that earnest and eloquent champion of popular education, Henry Brougham, the Great Commoner, as he was called, before his true glory was lost in the miscellaneous and no longer significant title of Lord. His essay on the Pleasures and Advantages of Science, with which he inaugurated the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, and his various efforts in the House of Commons, and the House of Lords, to secure the establishment of a system of public schools for England, entitle him to a distinguished position in the records of the early and efficient champions of scientific popular education. *

PLAYFAIR-SPENCER-WHITWORTH-RUSSELL.

Out of the many able and timely utterances by pen and voice, from the estab-lishment of the Schools of Design in 1836 to the thorough organization of the Science and Art Department in 1869, including its indefatigable secretary, Henry Cole; from the discussions embraced in and which grew out of the Reports of Parliamentary Commissions (numbering over 36 folio volumes) on the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, of Scotland and Ireland, the Public Schools and Endowed Grammar Schools of England, Ireland and Scotland, on Science in institutions of higher culture; from special publications, official and individual, on scientific and technical instruction, and the conferences under the auspices of the Society of Arts, British Science Association, and Chambers of Trade; from the eighteen Reports with all the valuable appended papers of the Science and Art Department, has come the partial realization of the desire of Bacon, Milton, Hartlib, Petty, Cowley and others, the gradual result of innumerable contributions of many earnest workers in the field of scientific, realistic and technical education. We will here name only Prof. Lyon Playfair's "Industrial Education on the Continent"; Herbert Spencer's "Relative values of different Knowledges"; Whitworth's brief Letter accompanying his endowment of $500,000 for the encouragement of mechanical dexterity and scientific knowledge in working men; and J. Scott Russell's "Systematic Technical Education of the English People," in 1869. The well directed and constant labors of the Council of the Society of Arts, in behalf of scientific and industrial schools, can not be too highly estimated.

Several of the Plans of institutions, in which mathematics and the sciences of nature hold a prominent place, referred to in this historical glance of individual efforts to promote scientific and technical education in England, will be brought together in a separate chapter.

* An extended notice of Brougham's Educational Labors will be found in the American Journal of Education, Vol. VI., pp. 467-508; and a History of Mechanic Institutes in Vol. X., p. 332.

II. ASSOCIATED EFFORTS TO ADVANCE SCIENCE AND THE ARTS.

SOCIETY FOR THE ENCOURAGEMENT OF THE ARTS.

THE SOCIETY OF ARTS was founded in 1754, at a meeting suggested and called by William Shipley,* a landscape painter, who in 1747, "from a wellgrounded persuasion of the extensive utility of the art of drawing to the nation," erected an Academy in the Strand, where he taught this art and practiced his profession. The object of the founders was proclaimed from the start in the designation which it bore—The Society for the Encouragement of the Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce.

Among the earliest to appreciate the beneficent aims of the Society and extend their scope so as to embrace the Colonies, was Benjamin Franklin, of the Colony of Pennsylvania, who communicated in 1755, a Proposal for Promoting Useful Knowledge among the British Plantations in America, bearing date May 14, 1753. The Society readily adopted the views of the author, and in 1755 elected him a corresponding member. In acknowledging the letter announcing the fact, he says: "Although you do not require your correspondents to bear any part of your expense, you will, I hope, permit me to throw my mite into your fund, and accept the twenty guineas I propose to send you shortly, to be applied in premiums for some improvements in Britain, as a grateful though small return for your most kind and generous intention of encouraging im- provements in America. I flatter myself, from that part of your plan, that those jealousies which were formerly entertained by the mother country begin to subside. Never be discouraged by any apprehension that arts are come to such perfection in England as to be incapable of further improvement. As yet the quantity of human knowledge bears no proportion to the quantity of human ignorance. The improvements made within these 2,000 years, considerable as they are, would have been much more so, if the ancients had possessed one or two arts now of common use-those of copper-plate and letter printing. Whatever is now exactly delineated and described by these can scarcely (from the multitude of copies) be lost to posterity. And the knowledge of small matters gives the hint, and is sometimes the occasion of great discoveries, perhaps ages after."

At that time the industrial condition of England was very backward and unpromising. Coal was hardly used, woolen was spun by hand, machines being employed neither for this nor other purposes; education was neglected, and art discouraged; agriculture was in its rudest state, very few labor-saving tools being used, while drainage and the planting of high lands were not practiced. Internal communication was so neglected that pack-horses furnished the best means of transportation. Only the coarsest pottery was manufactured; most even of genteel tables were furnished with vessels of wood, pewter and leather;

*MR. SHIPLEY, who acted as Secretary of the first meeting of the Society, held March 29th, 1754, entered in the first minute-book of the proceedings, three letters published anonymously in 1721, advocating the establishment of an Association to be called the Chamber of Arts, "for the improvement of operative knowledge, the mechanical arts, inventions, and manufactures;" and after them, the Proposal issued by Benjamin Franklin for the formation of a Society at Philadelphia, to be called the American Philosophical Society, "for the Improvement of Useful Knowledge among the British Plantations of America."

and as to cloths, only the coarsest fustians were manufactured. Most elegant objects of artistic design, of household use, or of wear, were brought from abroad. For instance, linen, silks and porcelain came from the Continent; while for chintz, muslins, and the finer fabrics, the English went as far as India. To remedy this state of things, the Society of Arts set itself at work, and, in March, 1754, after noting "that Drawing is absolutely necessary in many employments, trades and manufactures, and the encouragement thereof may prove of great utility to the country," resolved to offer premiums to a certain number of boys and girls for superior proficiency in this art, ascertained by a committee of examination; as well as other premiums for discovery of cobalt, the growth of madder, and the manufacture of buff leather. The adjudication under this first competitive exhibition of artistic skill in England was made in 1755; and in the following year, in the absence of a National Gallery, the Duke of Richmond, who had begun a collection of statues, busts and models in 1750, allowed examples to be selected for copying for the premiums of that year.

From the date of its thorough organization in November, 1757, the Society has gone forward steadily in its efforts to advance the industrial interests of the Empire, and not a few of the great improvements in Agriculture, Commerce, and Manufactures, originated in the suggestions of its members, and in the stimulus and rewards of their associated labors. Upwards of $500,000 have been expended in prizes and other forms of encouragement for new inventions and improvements in the useful arts.

In art, the establishment of the British Museum, the National Gallery, and the South Kensington Museum, is probably indirectly owing to its influence. The Society has paid much attention to the improvement of material, implements, and processes of art. Bronze casting and chasing, iron casting, artistic metal, and other works, have been much encouraged; also the imitation and copying of intaglios or cameos.

The Society contributed to establish the struggling art of lithography in Great Britain, giving a gold medal to Senefelder, its discoverer, and publishing accounts of the processes in its transactions.

The revival of the art of steel engraving, carried to such perfection by Albert Durer, was the result of experiments set on foot by its committees, who succeeded after many experiments. The discovery superseded to a great extent the use of copper plates.

AGRICULTURE was not included in the original scheme of Shipley himself, but was at once added, the system of premiums being adopted as the best spur to industry. The improvement of agricultural produce, the planting of timber, and the reclamation of waste lands, were the objects of papers, discussions, and awards.

The present condition of the grass and root crops is owing to this attention. This first influenced the farmer to discriminate and separate the different sorts of grass, and to cultivate extensively, carrots, turnips, potatoes, rhubarb, and similar roots. Premiums were awarded for agricultural machines. Special attention was paid to oaks, gold medals being awarded to those who planted them in great numbers. But other trees for timber were not neglected. Timber was of more consequence at that time than it is now, when coal has so far superseded it, and iron is produced with less consumption of wood.

The Society patronized bee-keeping, and attempted, in 1786, to establish