This school attained its highest success in the year 1514, of which Marini (Lettera dell' Ab. Gaet. Marini) has published a catalogue (of teachers.) The privileges of the scholars were then again confirmed. Cardinal Camerlingo was chancellor of the school, and four eminent Romans constituted a board of supervision. It numbered 88 professors, (among them 31 jurists,) and 13 other teachers; a number which was never again reached; 14,000 florins were expended upon salaries.

School of the City.

The learned work of Renazzi, (Storia dell' universita degli studi, Roma, 4 vols., 1803 to 1806,) with many original documents, completes and corrects our information on the ancient history of this school. A school (schola palatina) was, in very remote time, always attached to the court of the popes. It was this school that Innocent IV enlarged, provided with professors of law, and to which he gave the privilege of studium generale, together with the right of conferring degrees, and it followed the papal court every where outside of Rome, especially to Avignon, and was in active operation throughout the 15th century. It is probable that Leo X united it with the school of the city, and thus discontinued its separate existence. The school of the city was founded in 1303 by Boniface VIII, and declared a studium generale. The doctors and scholars of this school elected a rector, who exercised jurisdiction. But the right of giving degrees was not possessed until John XXV added it in 1318. In the 14th century the school declined. The statutes of the city in the year 1370, (in manuscript,) order its reëstablishment, and that three teachers, each with a salary of 200 florins, should be engaged. However, after a second decline, Eugenius IV, in 1431, reörganized it, and to this reörganization must be referred those statutes of the city above mentioned, in regard to the constitution of the university. In 1458 the university was deprived of the privilege of electing a rector, and the papal government resumed this right. The supervision over both schools, especially the right of conferring degrees, was vested in the camerlingo, (chamberlain,) and only during the absence of the pope from Rome. The supervision of the city school passed into the hands of the papal vicar. This school still continues, under the name of Archigymnasium Romanum.

IX. NAPLES.

The school of Naples differed from all Italian schools hitherto described, in its origin as well as its organization. It did not spring up of itself and by the natural demands of teachers and students already present, but was founded in accordance with the will of Frederic II, who loved knowledge and desired that his subjects should no longer visit foreign schools. So he resolved, in 1224, to open in Naples a school of all branches of learning, on an extensive plan, as to which the four letters of Petrus de Vineis give special information. Students were promised great liberties and conveniences; a mixed commission should fix the price of lodgings, and no rent higher than two ounces of gold should be . charged. The best teachers in every branch were to be engaged. At the same time all subjects were strictly forbidden to visit foreign schools, or to teach or even study outside of the city of Naples, except in common schools. As Frederic never favored corporations, there is no trace here of a university of the scholars, nor of a rector; but the scholars had their own jurisdiction. They

were under a judge, appointed by the king expressly for the school; and in civil cases, scholars, whether plaintiffs or defendants, could choose between this judge, their teacher, and the archbishop. In criminal cases also this judge alone presided over the trial. The same privilege was given to professors, with the natural modification, that they could choose between the judge and archbishop only. The royal grand-chancellor exercised the highest authority over the university, so that promotions, engagement of teachers, and the order of lectures, were regulated by him. After the close of the 13th century, a rector appears, as assistant and representative of the chancellor, in his relation to the school, the rectorate being permanent and attached to a professorship. During the 15th century the supervision was taken away from the chancellor and vested in the rector; the control of promotions being left with the chancellor. In the statutes of 1610 the rector holds a totally different position; he was a student, elected for one year only, and his duty was to see that the lectures were regularly delivered.

Degrees were conferred directly by the king or the great-chancellor during the first two centuries; for each case the persons who were to examine and grant a degree to the candidate, were appointed at pleasure by him. The remarkable consequence was that not only was the promotion repeated at will, as will be seen from a remarkable example, but when a new grand-chancellor, whose rules were stricter, was appointed, he reëxamined all doctors and revoked the degrees given to many. As the university thus isolated itself more and more from all others, the natural result was that its degrees were nowhere recog nized, while the king, to revenge himself or to maintain the right of his sovereignty, refused recognition to foreign doctors, and caused them to be reëxamined and promoted, when they desired to teach in Naples. For example, Jacobus de Belvisio had lectured as bachelor in Bologna for several years, when he asked an honorable position from Charles II, of Naples. He presented himself to the king at Aix, in Provence, in 1297, and was made a doctor by the great-chancellor, in the royal palace. Subsequently the examination was repeated and the degree again conferred in Naples by another great-chancellor. When afterwards he intended to lecture in his native city of Bologna, the degree, twice given, was not recognized, though the king himself interfered in his favor. It seemed without doubt that a new examination and promotion were necessary; but even this was refused for a long time, but was finally obtained after much trouble, making the third. Franciscus de Thelesia had been promoted by Guido de Suzaria and other doctors in Reggio; but when he appeared in Naples, the king did not recognize the degree, and ordered it to be again formally conferred. This uncommon system was abolished in 1428, by establishing in Naples a faculty of degrees, such as existed in all other universities, which should examine and confer degrees after certain rules, and upon which the grand-chancellor exercised only a general supervision. All the members of this faculty possessed a separate jurisdiction under the chancellor or the archbishop, according as they belonged to the clergy or laity.

The engagement of salaried professors was for a long time made by the high chancellor. By the statute of 1610, competition was introduced, i. e. an examination of all applicants by the faculty, and the filling the positions by election. This custom, French in its origin, had passed into Spain and was transplanted to Naples by the Spanish government.

With this peculiar organization, and the great efforts made by the government to elevate the school, it is remarkable that it has accomplished less than any other university in Italy. Its historian, Origlia, though acknowledging the inferiority of its present condition, tries to represent its first period as one of great prosperity, and goes so far as to call it the only true university at that time in Europe. But his work shows distinctly that the reputation and influence of this university were at all times very insignificant, and that even Frederic II could not overcome the effects of a defective organization.

X. PERUGIA.

A teacher of law and a few teachers of other branches came to Perugia in 1276, and the city made provision for the establishment and support of a school. A papal decree of 1307 recognized the studium generale, and another of the year 1318 conferred the right of giving degrees, the bishop of the city having the same power as the archdeacon of Bologna. Charles IV also gave a diploma to this university in 1355, running as if it were about to be established. Here also the university consisted of the scholars only, they electing the rector, who is first mentioned in 1322. The professors were elected, in part by the city authorities, and in part by the scholars. For a long time no native of the city could obtain a professorship, so that, when Bartolus obtained citizenship, an exception to the law had to be made in his favor. The course of lectures, as in Bologna, was for one year, beginning on the 19th of October. The endowment of the university amounted at first to 1,500 florins, afterward to 2,000, and still later to 2,500. In 1389, Antonio de Butrio was engaged with a salary of 300 florins; he competed for this position with Petrus de Ubaldis, which custom of competitions had been introduced here. The doctors, as elsewhere, formed a college, the oldest statutes of which, from the year 1407, are in print. A peculiar restriction was laid on scholars in Perugia; if they obtained the degree of doctor at any other school, it was declared void, and they became incapable of filling any office requiring this degree.

XI. OTHER UNIVERSITIES IN ITALY.

Besides the universities already named, other institutions existed in Italy during the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries; mostly law-schools.

PIACENZA, it is mentioned, had a school in the 12th century, at which Rogerius and Placentinus taught, and this school obtained the papal privilege of studium generale as early as 1248.

MODENA is known as a school of the 12th century from the history of Rogerius, Placentinus, and especially of Pillius. The latter relates that he was called from Bologna, and that he received about 100 marks of silver (50 pounds weight.) This would seem incredible as a salary, and must mean capital. Such a loan would not be improbable nor without example. In 1260, Guido de Suzaria received the sum of 2,250 liras at Modena, also as capital, for which all citizens should have free tuition; a fine of 1,000 liras to be paid by the party breaking the contract. The school disappears at the beginning of the 14th century, though the statutes of 1328 prescribe salaries of 150 and 50 liras for a teacher of law and for a teacher of a notary's duties and of the institutes.

REGGIO gives proof of the existence of a school in the 12th century. It was very flourishing in the 13th century and had many eminent teachers. This school also was closed about the middle of the 14th century. A diploma of doctor, issued by this faculty in the year 1276, is preserved, which is the oldest

existing. The two examinations were like those of Bologna, but the professors appear only as examiners and as advisers, and the bishop, upon the recommendation of the professors, confers the degree.

PAVIA obtained a privilegium of Charles IV in 1361. As early as 1362, Galeaz Visconti forbade his subjects visiting schools outside of Pavia, in which he undoubtedly imitated the former action of Naples. Subsequently, great efforts were made to enlarge this school, as appears from a published catalogue, which contains the names of all teachers who filled the two superior positions; among these are celebrated names, and the salaries were equal to those of the wealthiest universities. Thus Baldus, in 1397, received 1,200 florins; Jason, in 1492, received 2,250 florins; Alciat, between 1536 and 1540, had 1,000 scudi, and between 1544 and 1550 received 7,500 liras as his salary.

TURIN was privileged by the pope in 1405; by imperial decree in 1412; there are no earlier indications of this school. There was there, as is common in Italy, a university of scholars, who elected their rector, the latter exercising jurisdiction. Criminal jurisdiction was reserved to the civil courts, but the rector had a seat in court. The organization of the faculty and the order of promotion was almost the same as that of Bologna and Padua. The bishop of Turin was chancellor.

NOTES.

(1.) This constitution seems to us very objectionable, but it must be remembered that the students of Bologna were widely different from those of our times.

(2.) It is very remarkable that almost all the other Universities in France followed rather the example of Bologna than of Paris, and moreover they were preëminently schools of law, bearing the name universités des loix. In similar manner the students at several South German universities were called, in the usual language, jurists, even though they belonged to the other faculties. (3.) So uncritical was this work that it has not been suffered to appear in print.

(4.) After the charter of foundation, in the charter-book of the archives, is an admonitory letter from Ambrosius to the emperor. No doubt this was regarded as the cause and interpretation of the previous foundation.

(5.) This reason is so natural that it is hardly conceivable how other reasons, without historical proof, can be given; e. g. the emperor bestowed the privilegium out of jealousy towards Paris, and to keep the students in their own country.

(6.) This decision of course assumes that as a rule every student has attached himself to one single teacher. Cf. Baldus ad Cod., Auth. Habita, num. 75: “I ask what is to be said of the case of a student who attends various lectures, if the case is brought before one of his teachers, can he choose another? and I answer, if one is higher in rank, he ought to consider him as his judge, otherwise he can have his choice."

(7.) That explanation by which dominus is used for the jurists, and magister for the other professors, is without proof, and is improbable, as there was then no need to provide for any school but that of law. Decidedly erroneous is the opinion of some later writers who understand by dominus either the city magistracy or the rector.

(8.) It is, however, quite possible and not improbable that in the earliest times there were more than two universities.

(9.) In later times twenty years were demanded for entire alterations only, while single changes might be made every five years.

(10.) Under these names, as the proper members of the university, they appear in the statutes. (11.) So, e. g., the eight statuarii must be half legista, half decretaliste.

(12.) Fines occur frequently in the statutes; they were, for instance, imposed for violations of the ordinances pertaining to dress.

(13.) Generally 20 soldi, if the expelled individual was a member of the university, but double for a foreigner. If doctor, he paid generally 20 liras, sometimes 100.

(14.) The decisive passage on this point is in the Stat. Bon. lib. 2, p. 40. The real meaning of the passage is this: Every one, who teaches without being a doctor, is backalarius, with which agree the passages from the original documents, in which doctores and bachalarii are mentioned as comprising the whole staff of instructors. But since it might seem doubtful in what case and after what time a person was to be looked upon as really instructing, the statutes decided this more exactly. The etymology of the word is doubtful.

(15.) Thursday was, by old custom, set apart for attention to the person. It was considered the day for the bath. But if a church holiday occurred, the Thursday of the same week lost its privilege, to avoid omitting too many lectures.

(16.) If lectures were delivered upon the Sextus, the Clementini, or the Volumen, then more than two lectures the week were allowed; the university could dispense with this limitation.

(17.) Statuta urb Rom., lib. 3., c. 90, to which the bull belongs as an addition. The capitel itself says that the old imperial school at Rome had been improved by Boniface VIII, that it then entirely died out during the unfavorable times, and was at last restored by Eugenius IV. There are also earlier traces of a law-school, as, e. g., in a charter of 1277, entitled Angelus Legum Scolaris. Marini papiri, p. 38.

II. UNIVERSITIES OF FRANCE.

I. PARIS.

In Paris, as in Bologna, the historical accounts of the fame and prosperity of the university reach much farther back than the date of a definite constitution. As early as the 12th century, several very eminent teachers of theology and philosophy were connected with the cathedral school or with several convent schools, especially those of St. Genevieve and St. Victor. (18)

The oldest genuine documents on the constitution of this school, (for there is one, really written in the middle of the 13th century, but falsely attributed to Boethius, referring to this school,) are two decrees of pope Alexander III. In the first, dating from 1180, he ordains that no person in France shall accept money for the permission to teach, i. e. for the degree. Previous to this order the chancellor received one mark of silver for conferring the degree. The other decree makes a personal exception to this rule in favor of Peter Comestor, chancellor at that time.

More important than the decrees is the privilegium of king Philip Augustus, in the year 1200, which many have been tempted to consider (though wrongly) the act of foundation of the university, or at least the beginning of a definite constitution. At that time several scholars had been killed in a riot, and an officer of the king was very much to blame. The king then made the following rules: If scholars (i. e. teachers or students) committed a crime (forefactum,) the provost of Paris could arrest them, but should deliver them forthwith to the clerical court for investigation and punishment; the rector, however, he could not arrest. When scholars were attacked, the citizens witnessing were not to go away, but to seize the disturbers and surrender them to the courts, and give evidence in the case. To a faithful observation of these orders the provost and other officers and citizens were bound by oath. After that time the provost of Paris was considered as belonging to the university and was called conservator of the royal privileges.

A concordat of the scholars, divided into the four nations, in 1206, over the election of the rector, has not been preserved, but its mere existence, which, from very old documents, is not to be doubted, proves the great antiquity of the division into nations. A decree of Innocent III, in the beginning of the 13th century, is less remarkable for its contents than for the first known use of the word "university."

The Paris school was in many points distinguished from all others. No other school maintained for so long a time its reputation and importance, nor exercised such influence on church and state. It called itself the eldest daughter of the king, and guarded its rank with jealous care; but often the noble sentiment of dignity degenerated into pride and arrogance. If, in any dispute with the civil power, the university could not maintain its rights, it employed, as an extreme means, the resolution to suspend all lectures and sermons by its members. This so excited the populace that they could be appeased only by yielding to the university. As late as 1588, deputies of the university took seats in the diet at Blois. What rendered them especially powerful, even dangerous, was their poverty. The university, the faculties, the nations, all were poor,