ally regarded as the most desirable associates in societies, clubs, &c. It is very hard for a young man to be looked down upon out of class by young men who in class have to look up to him. Indeed, it is very nearly impossible.

So far have we, during these two years, developed this system. It is still an experiment, and environed by many difficulties. It has been found necessary to arrange our schedules of lectures, examinations, and recitations so that all come before 1 o'clock P. M., leaving the afternoon to work and laboratory practice.

We have also had to make in favor of students in the labor corps, an exception to the rule requiring every student to carry on at least three studies steadily, and various difficulties have arisen, still we are reasonably satisfied with our success, and we shall press on. It should be constantly borne in mind that this system has been in operation but two years and three months, and that it has been but one, among many problems, pressed upon us.

I hope much from our attempt, still I would as yet hesitate to recommend any other institution to try the experiment. It remains to be seen whether the same labor, care, and expenditure, differently directed, would not produce results of greater benefit. But we have tried to do this and not to leave the other undone. Before closing, permit me to notice a misapprehension of our efforts, both by parents, and young men who wish to support themselves, but are utterly incapable of any manual labor useful to us. I quote from the address above referred to:

"One father and mother brought their young gentleman, who could do nothing any where else. He had whittled out a toy, very simple to the eyes of the world generally; very wonderful to the eyes of his fond parents. On the strength of this toy, it was evidently expected by them that he could get an education in books by droning over them, learn the use of tools by playing with them, support himself while thus amusing himself, and mend his morals and manners while engaged in that branch of practical agriculture known as 'sowing wild oats.'

"Another young gentleman, city-bred, sickly, weakly; who had not the experience of any skilled labor; who had not the strength for any unskilled labor, wished to support himself by work while pursuing his studies; but when he discovered that work makes a man tired, wears his fingers, and soils his clothes, he withdrew, making the air vocal with his complaints.

"Another, with no available trade, no aptitude for labor, offered to favor the institution with his presence, if he could learn a trade, carry on his studies, and save enough to board, lodge, and clothe himself, beside sending twenty-five dollars a month home to his parents.

"These are actual cases, and types of many others.

"I repeat it, our duty is not to do such work as this. We are not to establish a reform-school, nor an intellectual alms-house. We should take sound, manly, capable young men where the farms, the shops, and the public schools leave them, and give them back to the country, strong to develop and increase the resources of neighborhoods, states, and nations. I repeat, this is to-day the most pressing material need of this land."

Into this attempt, we are fitting our system of voluntary student-labor. Our outlay upon it in all its branches, has averaged about ten to twelve thousand dollars a year, and I think it may be safely estimated that it has returned us, in valuable and necessary products, within a very small percentage of what the ordinary systems of labor would have given us, while it has attracted a considerable body of most earnest young men, and aided them in prosecuting studies from which they would otherwise have been probably deprived.

Very respectfully yours,

TO HON. HENRY BARNArd.

ANDREW D. WHITE, President.

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN SCOTLAND.

AREA-POPULATION-EDUCATION.

SCOTLAND, originally an independent kingdom, but since the union of the crowns of Scotland and England on the accession of James VI of the former, to the throne of the latter as James I, in 1602, and the act of Union in 1707, an integral portion of the kingdom of Great Britain, occupies the division of the Island north of the Tweed, Solway Frith, and the Cheviot Hills. It has an area of about 30,000 square miles, with a length of 217 miles, and a breadth ranging from 43 miles to 125, not including numerous islands which line its coast, and constitute no small portion of the whole area. Out of 19,639,377 acres, only 4,438,137 are under cultivation. The population in 1861 was 3,062,294 distributed over three great divisions, differing in the natural configuration of the country, and the industrial condition of the people, viz. :-First, 1,487,276 in the Lowland Parishes: Second 80,000 in the Hebrides and Highland Parishes; and 1,012,270 in 79 Burghs (Parliamentary and Royal) and 289,057 in 78 Towns having each 2,000 inhabitants and upwards. In each of these subdivsions the organization of public schools differ, and will require separate treatment.

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.

Public instruction in Scotland is secured through three great departments, which may be called Elementary, Secondary and Superior. Although not legally so designated, yet the institutions in each have a legal basis, though not very closely defined and limited, and the whole is without any efficient system of local or state administration, inspection,

or control.

1. ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION is provided in institutions of various kinds, the core of which is the national Parochial system, which in its germ, existed as early as the Christian Church in Scotland, and which took its present shape in the acts of the Privy Council in 1615, and of the Scotch Parliament of 1633, and of the Church of Scotland in 1689. To these departments, although not exclusively, belong:

(1.) Parochial Schools which exist by operation of law in every parish, which together (917) cover the whole of Scotland outside of the boundaries of the burghs.

(2.) Side Schools, authorized by act of 1803, in parishes so situated

or so extensive that a single school can not adequately provide the elementary instruction for all the youth within their bounds.

(3.) Sessional Schools in the large towns, and burghs (each of which comprise one parish), which are managed by the minister and kirk Session, but may be regarded as belonging to the parochial system, in their class of pupils and studies.

(4.) Parliamentary schools, established since 1835, by an act of Parliament, by which the salaries of certain districts in the Highlands and Islands are paid out of a public appropriation.

To the elementary department belong a large number of non-parochial schools, such as (1.) the General Assembly Schools, of which there are 519 with 33,251 scholars; (2.) the Christian Knowledge Society Schools, of which there are 202, with 10,054 scholars; (3.) Free Church Schools, established under the Free Church Education Scheme in 1843, of which there are 617, with 48,860; (4.) Episcopal Church Schools of which there are 74, with 6,202 scholars; (5.) Roman Catholic Schools, of which there are 61, with 5,736 scholars; (6.) Subscription Schools; (7.) Proprietary Schools; (8.) Private Adventure Schools; (9.) Endowment Schools, including the Hospitals which have funds to the amount of £100,000. II. SECONDARY INSTRUCTION embraces :

(1.) Burgh Schools, or Grammar Schools, Established by the Council or municipal authorities of Burghs created by Royal charter.

(2.) Academies, or Institutions, both in and out of Burghs, founded by subscription, and managed by directors selected from the subscribers.

(3.) Parochial Schools with advanced classes. To this department belong a large number of Private Schools, some of which are exclusively boarding or day schools, or a mixture of both, but all of them having elementary classes; also the Hospitals or endowed boarding schools for special classes.

III. SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION is given in four Universities, which have close connection with the schools and classes of Secondary Instruction. To the above department may be added:

IV. SPECIAL And SupplementARY SCHOOLS AND AGENCIES.

For thirty years, the friends of a truly national system of public schools-comprehensive enough to embrace citizens of all creeds and of all localities, no matter how remote, or how scattered the inhabitants may be, and good enough to realize the wishes of all classes of society for the education of their children-without ignoring the many excellent features of the old Parochial and Grammar Schools, which have given to Scotland in spite of many natural disadvantages, a high place among the prosperous nations of modern Europe-have labored strenuously for a reorganization. Out of these efforts has issued an Educational Commission, appointed in 1866, composed of twenty eminent and competent citizens, with the Duke of Argyll as chairman, from whose successive Reports in six volumes, we draw in literal extracts (slightly modified in a few instances) the following account of the systems, and schools of every kind now in operation in Scotland.

I. SYSTEM OF PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS.

Originally, the schools in Scotland were closely connected with the religious establishments of the country. Long before the Reformation all the principal towns had grammar-schools, in which the Latin language was taught; besides which, they had "lecture-schools" in which children were instructed to read the vernacular tongue. As early as the reign of James IV., a Statute, 1494, c. 54, ordained, under a penalty of twenty pounds, "that all barrones and freehalders" of substance should put their sons and heirs to the schools from six to nine, "and keep them there until they should be competently founded, and have perfect Latin." At this time the Catholic Church had authority over all teachers, who could not exercise their calling without the license of the Chancellor.

After the Reformation, the establishment and maintenance of schools became an object of constant and anxious attention on the part of the clergy. The First "Book of Policy" (or Discipline, drawn up by John Knox, on behalf of a Committee of the Reformed Church of Scotland in 1560-1) recommended that there should be a schoolmaster, "able to read the grammar and the Latin tongue," in every parish where there was a town of any reputation, and, in the landward parishes, that the reader or minister should take care of the instruction of the youth. In this book, and in the repeated applications to Parliament for restitution of the patrimony of the Church which had been seized by the nobles, the support of "schools" is uniformly one of the objects to which such funds are to be applied.

The nobles, however, notwithstanding the favorable inclinations of the Regent Murray, were powerful enough to resist the claim for restitution. But in the year 1567 the Reformed religion was established by law; and by an Act of the same year, c. 11, Parliament conceded to the Church their claim that the "superintendents or visitors" should have the cognizance of the teachers of youth. Then came the Act of 1592—" the great Charter of the Church"-re-enacting the Statute of 1581, which had ratified the Act of 1567, wherein it is declared that none shall be permitted to teach but such as should be tried by the superintendents or visitors of the Church. At this time, there was no legal obligation to support parish schools. But, as Dr. M'Crie says in his Life of Melville :—

As every minister was bound regularly to examine his people, it became his interest to have a schoolmaster for the instruction of the youth. At the annual visitation of parishes by presbyteries and provincial synods, the state of the schools formed one subject of uniform inquiry; the qualifications of the teachers were tried; and where there was no school, means were used for having one established.

A "common order" as to the rate of contribution to be raised for the salary of the teacher, and as to the fees to be paid by the scholars, was laid down and put in practice long before the Act of Council in 1616, which was ratified by Parliament in 1633. It is a mistake to suppose that the parochial schools of Scotland owed their origin to these enactments.

The Parliamentary Statute has indeed been eventually of great benefit. But it would have been a dead letter but for the exertion of the Church Courts; and, owing to the vague nature of its provisions, it continued long to be evaded by those who were insensible to the benefits of education, or who grudged the smallest expense for the sake of promoting it.

In 1616 the Privy Council directed, that "in every parish of this kingdom, where convenient means may be had for entertaining a school, a school shall be established, and a fit person appointed to teach the same, upon the expense of the parochinaris, according to the quality and quantity of the parish." This Act of Council was ratified in Parliament by the Statute of 1633, c. 5, which is the first legislative enactment authorizing the establishment of parish schools. This Act provides that the Bishop shall have power, with the consent of the heritors, and most part of the parishioners, to impose a stent for the support of the school.

It was during the great civil war, however, that the foundation of the present parochial system was laid, for the Act of 1646, c. 46, though repealed at the Restoration, was re-enacted in the Statute which was passed in 1696, and is entitled, An "Act for settling of schools."

By this Act of 1696, it is ordained that "there shall be a school settled and established, and a schoolmaster appointed in every parish not already provided, by the advice of the heritors and minister of the parish." Under this Act the heritors are bound to provide a commodious school-house, and a salary not above 200 (£11, 2s. 2 2-3d.) nor under 100 merks (£5, 11s. 11-3d.) Each heritor is to be assessed in proportion to his valued rent, and is allowed relief from his tenants to the extent of one-half. If the heritors neglect or refuse to act, the duty of doing so devolves upon the Commissioners of Supply.

Under this Statute, enforced by the persevering and zealous exertions of the Church, Parish schools were erected in every parish in Scotland.

The salary, however, provided for the schoolmaster became in time inadequate, and difficulties occurred as to what heritors were entitled to vote for the election of schoolmasters, and as to the power of reviewing the judgment pronounced by Presbyteries in regard to their admission and deposition.

To remove these difficulties, the Statute 43 Geo. III., c. 54, was passed in 1803, and this has been succeeded by the 24 and 25 Vict., c. 107, in 1861. These Acts must be read together.

(1.) As to the schoolmasters' emoluments. By the Act of 1803, the salary of the schoolmaster was in no case to exceed 400 merks Scots (£22, 4s. 5d.), or to be under 300 merks (£16, 13s. 4d.) The salaries to be fixed between these two sums were to subsist for twenty-five years; and it was provided that thereafter the highest amount of salary should be equal to two chalders, and the lowest to one chalder and a half, the value of which is appointed to be fixed every 25 years, in the manner pointed out by the Statute.

These clauses are now repealed by the Act of 1861, which provides