Atomic Disintegration and the Distribution of the Elements.

MR. DONALD MURRAY'S letter (p. 125) deals with a subEt which I have been attempting, now for more than a ar, to attack experimentally. A similar experience to at which Mr. Murray describes as the experience of a etime occurred to me eighteen months ago in a visit to e gold mines of Western Australia. Since then my oughts have been less concerned with the radio-elements an with those like gold, platinum, thallium, indium, &c., ich resemble radium in the minuteness and approximate stancy of the proportion in which they occur in nature. It is wonderful to reflect that mankind for thousands of ars has been passionately and determinedly engaged in search for gold, not on account mainly of its useful alities, but on account of its comparative scarcity. The tory of gold-getting presents a strange uniformity. The rch has been rewarded always with about the same alified measure of success, never with such success that value of gold has seriously depreciated. The common ing that about the same amount of gold has to be put o the earth in order to dig it out holds an economic and bably a scientific truth. For may we not consider that history of these centuries of search, carried on with a acity of purpose and a continuity approached in the case no other element, shows clearly that a natural law is e involved no less than in the case of radium or onium? The history of gold-getting appears to be subntially the same in all countries in all times. We have initial prospecting in which the chances and difficulties so great that only the most adventurous attempt it; discovery of surface gold and the rush from all parts the earth; the phenomenal finds and the invariably much ater proportion of failure; the tracing of the gold to its rce and the discovery of some cubic acres, or it may miles, of gold-bearing earth. Then at first only the Osits averaging several ounces to the ton are thought rthy of attention; but these rapidly give out, and attenis directed to the poorer and still poorer veins, while the same time the steady progress and evolution of the neer camp, where often gold seems to be commoner than ter, into the civilised community served with railways, tric power, and often elaborate water supply, cheapens cost of extraction to such an extent that deposits raging only a few grains to the ton can be made to da profit. Finally, we have the same inevitable end en science and organisation have done all in their ver, and the remaining ore contains just so much gold not to pay.

et the case be stated a little differently. What would the effect of the sudden discovery in any one place of e really large quantity of gold? There seems no doubt tutter chaos would ensue in the commercial world, ich might involve before it was got under control a reangement of the map of the world. Since nothing of

the sort has ever happened, in spite of the most unprecedented struggles to that end, it is in accord with the principles of natural evolution to conclude that such a contingency probably violates some law of nature. Thus the gentlemen in charge of the national exchequer and of the Bank of England, who on a casual examination appear to be placing the most blind and implicit confidence on the future continuance of the existing order of things, are in reality secure in a fundamental if previously unrecognised law of nature. Eighteen months ago, after my visit to the gold deposits of Western Australia and New Zealand, and by the information which all concerned in the industry so readily placed at my disposal, I became convinced that in all probability gold, like radium, is at once the product of some other parent element, and is itself changing to produce "offspring elements, so that its quantity, and hence its value, was fixed simply as the ratio of these two rates of change.

My experiments with gold have been both by the direct and indirect methods. The former have been dogged by misfortune and have so far been without result, while in the indirect experiments on ancient gold the results until now have been conflicting. Certainly some nuggets did not contain helium in appreciable quantities, while in others I did find a minute quantity of helium. This, however, was before the elaborate precautions afterwards employed had been adopted, and as I can now repeat the experiments with certainty as soon as occasion permits I am keeping a quite open mind. On the other hand, I have established to my own satisfaction that helium is an invariable constituent of native platinum in all the samples I have tried. The above reasoning, from rarity, after extended search, applies to platinum to a degree only less complete than in the case of gold.

The experiments with the other elements have not yet been proceeding long enough to have furnished results, but I have made a great many experiments with uranium and thorium in the attempt to detect directly the production of helium from these elements. These elements have been, in fact, the standards, for their rate of change is accurately known, and, assuming with Rutherford that the a particle is an atom of helium, may be expected to yield helium at a known rate. The methods of search have been perfected in the case of these two elements, and I am glad to be able to say that it is now only a question of time and patience before the rate at which helium is being produced from these two elements is accurately measured. On the other hand, if helium is not being produced, the experiments will indicate a maximum possible limit of the rate of production (set by the smallest quantity of helium detectable) far below the rate to be expected from theory. This method, which is, of course, applicable to any other element, would detect any other gas of the argon-helium family if produced. So far, however, I have only had one completely successful experiment with each element. In the case of uranium the result was positive, and indicated a rate of production of the same order as that required by theory. In the case of thorium, the experiment was of the nature of a blank test, and it proved that the rate of production is certainly not greater than ten times that required by theory.

Mr. Murray's letter induces me to put on record these imperfect results, and I do this the more readily as they may perhaps serve to emphasise and support his suggestion that experiments along the lines and on the scale he suggests should be carried out. But what laboratory in England could deal with ten tons of lead over a term of ten years?

After a year's work, I confess I am less hopeful than I was of the ability of the individual worker to carry out direct experiments in this subject of atomic disintegration. I wonder if the individual with his humble kilogram and his single lifetime is not starting on an almost forlorn hope, and is unduly and unnecessarily handicapped. Due consideration should be given to the supreme consequences that must follow from successful discoveries in this field. Not only is there to be considered the effect such results must exert on the whole trend of philosophic thought, but certain definite economic problems would be solved. For example, the proof of the disintegration of gold would reduce the doctrine of bimetallism and the theory of

currency to a branch of physical science, while in the mining industry the results would possess a fundamental significance. For the first time in the history of mineralogical chemistry it is possible, thanks to the researches of Boltwood, Strutt, and McCoy, to predict with considerable certainty the percentage of one element (radium) present if the percentage of another (uranium) is known; and one asks to what this discovery may not grow.

It seems to me that the individual and his single lifetime is too small a stake for the prize in view. Such a work should be national, and carried on from century to century if necessary; and what nation has such a right or such a duty as the one in which the subject of atomic disintegration originated? I confess to a feeling of impatience, to the sense of the inadequacy of the single lifetime, in my experiments on such small quantities of gold as I can purchase, when, disintegrating at the same rate, if disintegrating at all, tons of gold are lying useless in the national bank, their secret-possibly one that it much concerns the race to know-guarded from knowledge by every cunning invention that the art of man may devise. I confess to a sense of indignation that I should have to purchase for my experiments coins and other objects of known antiquity when within the walls of the National Museum lie-mere dead relics as they at present are-one of the finest collections in existence, capable of affording evidence perhaps of a longer history than any dreamed of by the antiquarian, and guarded by those who cannot interpret the cypher, and who, officially at least, are unaware of its existence. I confess to a feeling of misgiving in starting experiments where, on the scale possible to the individual, the chances are all against their yielding a positive result in a lifetime. Surely considerations of this character, the availability of the national resources and antiquities for the purpose of scientific investigations under due safeguards, and the provision for and care of experiments of long period with great quantities demanded by this new subject, are worthy of the attention of the nation, and of the British Science Guild as its newly formed adviser. FREDERICK SODDY.

The University, Glasgow, December 9.

THE suggestion which Mr. Murray has put forward (p. 125) in explanation of the constancy of association of lead and silver has occurred to me also, and is indicated in an article which will probably appear shortly in the "Jahrbuch der Radioactivitat und Elektronik"; some calculations are contained therein which may sufficient interest to justify reproduction here.

say whether the lead could have retained its silver throug all the vicissitudes of its career. I believe that the sil cannot be separated from galena by any physical means it may be so intimately associated that geological pr cesses cannot affect it; but against this we have to set u fact that cerussite often contains much less silver tha the galena from which it is obviously derived. But her chemical separation may have taken place involving t passage of the metals into solution.

There are problems connected with the "traces impurity constantly associated with certain miner which await solution by some laborious chemist; it wou be interesting to see whether there is any tendency proportionality like that which holds between uranium an radium. But the absence of such a relation might ! explained on the grounds that radio-active equilibrium ha not yet been attained.

There is one other point to which attention may t directed. Rutherford has shown that the loss of heat tra the earth by conduction would be compensated by th energy evolved by radium distributed throughout the ma of the earth in the ratio of 1 to 2 X 1013; it appears th this amount of energy might be supplied by the disinteg tion of the actual constituents of the earth even if a radium were present. It is becoming clear that the de estimates of the age of the earth, based on physical data are wholly erroneous; but if the radio-activity of a elements can be established rigidly, and the time constant of their decay measured with sufficient accuracy, it ma be possible to use the evidence to which Mr. Murray ha directed attention to gain some information as to th period that has elapsed since the solidification of the earth NORMAN R. CAMPBELL Trinity College, Cambridge, December 10.

crust.

IN NATURE, December 7, p. 125, Mr. Donald Murra suggests that the constant association of different element arises from the slow transmutation of one into the other The idea is certainly a reasonable one, and I presume ba long been in the minds of all who have followed reus work. The writer discussed this question last year (Cher News, 1904, lxxxix., 47, 58, 118), and arrived at Mr Murray's opinion.

Now interest in the matter is reviving, perhaps I may b allowed to direct attention to this discussion. Kiel, December 10.

GEOFFREY MARTIN.

Some recent experiments have afforded evidence that the activity of the ordinary metals is caused by the emission of a particles. On the assumption that these a particles have an ionising power similar to that of those from radioactive elements, it appears that lead should emit less than one such particle per second. In order to find the maximum rate of change that we can attribute to this metal, we will assume that the emission of one such particle involves the breaking up of one atom of lead and the formation of one atom of silver; thus one atom breaks up per second. Now a gram of lead contains about 4X 1021 atoms, and therefore to transform one ten-millionth part of the lead would require 4X 10 seconds or more than ten million years. Since it would be impossible to detect a smaller proportion than this by chemical tests, I fear that the experiment which Mr. Murray suggests is impracticable. The earth would probably have ceased to be a habitable globe by the time that the lead was ripe for examination; perhaps we may trust posterity to settle the matter with greater expedition!

But the slowness of the change in lead presents serious difficulties to the theory that the silver in galena is a disintegration product. Even so small a proportion as one in ten thousand (34 ounces to the ton) would mean that the silver had been accumulating for a thousand million years a period longer than that usually assigned as the age of the earth. But until we know more of the processes by which deposits of ore were formed, it is impossible to 1 The accounts of these should be included in an early number of the Philosophical Magazine.

At a former eclipse I understand a similar disaste occurred. It may, therefore, be well for me again t state that wood in contact with, or in near proximity to, photographic plate, even in the dark, can impress upen the plate a clear picture of itself. This action is much stimulated by high temperature and brilliant sunshine. It can, however, be stopped in several ways; probably the simplest one would be to make the slides of copper in place of wood. WILLIAM J. RUSSELL

Davy-Faraday Laboratory.

Magnetic Storms and Auroræ.

THE interesting paper by Dr. Chas. Chree in your issue of November 30 (p. 101) is inaccurate in one particula". He states that the storm of November 12 was not accom panied by aurora. My friend Mr. John McHarg, Lisburn, writes me that "it was fairly prominent, to b seen easily above the moonlight, the usual type, a steak glow brighter than the Milky Way, extending half re the horizon and fading off upwards at an altitude of 2, or 30° in the west."

From that station auroræ were also observed November 14, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 27, and 30, 20 it is reported also that a bright crimson arch was so on the early morning of December 1.

6 Eleanor Road, Hackney, N.E.

F. C. DENNETT

1 Phil. Trans, vol. cxcvii p. 281; Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. lxxiv. p. 131

NOTES ON STONEHENGE.1

IX. FOLKLORE AND TRADITIONS.

O far in these notes I have dealt chiefly with stones, as I hold, associated with, or themselves posing, sanctuaries. We have become acquainted h circles, menhirs, dolmens, altars, viæ sacræ, jous structures built up of stones. Barrows and then banks generally came afterwards. The view which I have been led to bring forward tar is that these structures had in one way or other to do with the worship of the sun and stars; at they had for the most part an astronomical use connection with religious ceremonials.

The next question which concerns us in an attempt get at the bottom of the matter is to see whether ere are any concomitant phenomena, and, if there any, to classify them and study the combined

Sults.

Tradition and folklore, which give dim references the ancient uses of the stones, show in most unstakable fashion that the stones were not alone; Sociated with them almost universally were many actices such as the lighting of single or double fires the neighbourhood of the stones, passing through m and dancing round them; there were also other actices involving sacred trees and sacred wells or

Teams.

Folklore and tradition not only thus may help us, t I think they will be helped by such a general rvey, brief though it must be. So far as my reading s gone each special tradition has been considered itself; there has been no general inquiry having r its object the study of the possible origin and mection of many of the ancient practices and ideas ich have so dimly come down to us in many cases d which we can only completely reconstruct by cing together the information from various sources. I now propose to refer to all these matters with the w of seeing whether there be any relation between actices apparently disconnected in so many cases we follow the literature in which they are ronicled. We must not blame the literature since facts which remain to be recorded now here, now re, are but a small fraction of those that have been gotten. Fortunately, the facts forgotten in one ality have been remembered in another, so that is possible the picture can be restored more comtely than one might have thought at first.

It will be noted at once that from the point of view th which we are at present concerned, one of the ef relations we must look for is that of time, seeing it my chief affirmation with regard to the stone numents is that they were used for ceremonial pures at certain seasons, those seasons being based t upon the agricultural, and later upon the astronical divisions of the year.

But in a matter of this kind it will not do to depend in isolated cases; the general trend of all the facts ilable along several lines of inquiry must be found I studied, first separately and then inter se, if any

conclusion is to be reached.

This is what I now propose to do in a very sumry manner. It is not my task to arrange the facts folklore and tradition, but simply to cull from the ilable sources precise statements which bear upon questions before us. These statements, I think, y be accepted as trustworthy, and all the more so as ny of the various recorders have had no idea either the existence of a May year at all or of the contion between the different classes of the phenomena ich ought to exist if my theory of their common

1 Continued from vol. lxxii. p. 272.

In the table I also give, for comparison, the dates in the Greek and Roman calendars (p. 20).

There is no question that on or about the above days festivals were anciently celebrated in these islands, possibly not all at all holy places, but some at one and some at another; this, perhaps, may help to explain the variation in the local traditions and even some of the groupings of orientations. The earliest information on this point comes from Ireland.

Cormac, Archbishop of Cashel in the tenth century, states, according to Vallancey, that "in his time four

great fires were lighted up on the four great festivals of the Druids, viz., in February, May, August, and November."1

I am not aware of any such general statement as early as this in relation to the four festivals of the May year in any part of Britain, but in spite of its absence the fact is undoubted that festivals were held, and many various forms of celebration used, during those months.

From the introduction of Christianity attempts of different kinds were made to destroy this ancient time system and to abolish the so-called " pagan "worships and practices connected with it. Efforts were made to change the date and SO obliterate gradually the old traditions; another way, and this turned out to be the more efficacious, was to change the venue of the festival, so to speak, in favour of some Christian celebration or saint's day. The old festivals took no

1 Hazlitt, "Dictionary of Faiths and Folklore," under Gule of August.

account of week-days, so it was ruled that the festivals were to take place on the first day of the week; later on some of them were ruled to begin on the first day of the month.

When Easter became a movable feast, the efforts of the priests were greatly facilitated, and indeed it would seem as if this result of such a change was not absent from the minds of those who favoured it.

The change of style was, as I have before stated, a fruitful source of confusion, and this was still further complicated by another difficulty. Piers tells us that consequent upon the change "the Roman Catholics light their fires by the new style, as the correction originated from a pope; and for that very same reason the Protestants adhere to the old." I will refer to each of the festivals and their changes of date.

February 4.

Before the movable Easter the February festival had been transformed into Ash Wednesday (February 4). The eve of the festival was Shrove Tuesday, and it is quite possible that the ashes used by the priests on Wednesday were connected with the bonfires of the previous night.

It would seem that initially the festival, with its accompanying bonfire, was transferred to the first Sunday in Lent, February 8.

I quote the following from Hazlitt 2 :—

"Durandus, in his Rationale,' tells us, Lent was counted to begin on that which is now the first Sunday in Lent, and to end on Easter Eve; which time, saith he, containing forty-two days, if you take out of them the six Sundays (on which it was counted not lawful at any time of the year to fast), then there will remain only thirty-six days: and, therefore, that the number of days which Christ fasted might be perfected, Pope Gregory added to Lent four days of the week beforegoing, viz. that which we now call Ash Wednesday, and the three days following it. So that we see the first observation of Lent began from a superstitious, unwarrantable, and indeed profane, conceit of imitating Our Saviour's miraculous abstinence. Lent is so called from the time of the year wherein it is observed: Lent in the Saxon language signifying Spring."

Whether this be the origin of the lenten fast or not it is certain that the connection thus established between an old pagan feast and a new Christian one is very ingenious: 24 days in February plus 22 days in March (March 22 being originally the fixed date for Easter) gives us 46 days (6×7)+4, and from the point of view of priestcraft the result was eminently satisfactory, for thousands of people still light fires on Shrove Tuesday or on the first Sunday of Lent, whether those days occur in February or March. They are under the impression that they are doing homage to a church festival, and the pagan origin is entirely forgotten not only by them but even by those who chronicle the practices as "Lent customs. 993

Finally, after the introduction of the movable Easter, the priests at Rome, instead of using the <" pagan "ashes produced on the eve of the first Sunday in Lent or Ash Wednesday in each year, utilised those derived from the burning of the palms used on Palm Sunday of the year before.

of St. Blazeus is the 3rd February, when it is still the custom in many parts of England to light up fire on the hills on St. Blayse night: a custom antiently taken up perhaps for no better reason than the jingling resemblance of his name to the word Blaze.

This even did not suffice. A great candle church fes tival was established on February 2. This was called "Candlemas," and Candlemas is still the common name of the beginning of the Scotch legal year. the Cathedral of Durham when Cosens was bishop he "busied himself from two of the clocke in the after noone till foure, in climbing long ladders to stick wax candles in the said Cathedral Church; the numbe of all the candles burnt that evening was 220, beside 16 torches; 60 of those burning tapers and torche standing upon and near the high altar."1

There is evidence that the pagan fires at other time of the year were also gradually replaced by candle in the churches.

May 6.

2

the same way as the February one. The May festival has been treated by the Church With Easte fixed on March 22, 46 days after Easter brought u to a Thursday (May 7), hence Holy Thursday and Ascension Day. With Easter movable there of course was more confusion. Whit Sunday, the Feast of Pentecost, was only nine days after Holy Thursday and it occurred, in some years, on the same day of the month as Ascension Day in others. In Scotland the festival now is ascribed to Whit Sunday.

It is possibly in consequence of this that the festival before even the change of style was held on the ist of the month.

In Cornwall, where the celebrations still survive, the day chosen is May 8.

August 8.

For the migrations of the dates of the " pagan festival in the beginning of August from the 1st to the 12th, migrations complicated by the old and new style, I refer to Prof. Rhys' Hibbert lectures, p. 418 in which work a full account of the former practices in Ireland and Wales is given.

The old festival in Ireland was associated with Lug a form of sun-god. The most celebrated one was held at Tailltin. This feast-Lugnassad-was changed into the Church celebration Lammas-from A. S hláfmaesse-that is loaf-mass, or bread-mass, so named as a mass or feast of thanksgiving for the first fruits of the corn harvest. The old customs in Wales and the Isle of Man included the ascent of hills in the early morning, but so far I have come across no record of fires in connection with this date.

November 8.

The fact that November 11 is quarter day in Scot land, that mayors are elected on or about that date shows, I think, clearly that we are here dealing with the old " pagan" date.

The fact that the Church anticipated it by the feast of All Souls' on November i reminds us of what happened in the case of the February celebration, later I give a reference to the change of date; and perhaps this change was also determined by the natural gravitation to the first of the month as in the case of May, and because it marked at one time the beginning of the Celtic year.

But what seems quite certain is that the feast ich should have been held on November 8 on ronomical grounds was first converted by the urch into the feast of St. Martin on November 11. "Encyclopædia Britannica" tells us

The feast of St. Martin (Martinmas) took the ce of an old pagan festival, and inherited some of usages (such as the Martinsmännchen, Martinser, Martinshorn, and the like, in various parts of many."

was

St. Martin lived about A.D. 300. As the number saints increased, it became impossible to dedicate east-day to each. Hence it was found expedient have an annual aggregate commemoration of such had not special days for themselves. So a church tival "All Hallows," or "Hallowmass," tituted about A.D. 610 in memory of the martyrs, d it was to take place on May 1. For some reason another this was changed in A.D. 834. May was ven up, and the date fixed on November 1. This as a commemoration of all the saints, so we get e new name “All Saints' Day."

There can be little doubt that the intention of the urch was to anticipate and therefore gradually to literate the pagan festival still held at Martinmas, d it has been successful in many places, in eland, for instance; at Samhain, November 1 the proper time for prophecy and the unveiling of ysteries; . . . it was then that fire was lighted a place called after Mog Ruith's daughter Lachtga. From Tlachtga all the hearths in Ireland e said to have been annually supplied, just as the mnians had once a year to put their fires out and ht them anew from that brought in the sacred ip from Delos. The habit of celebrating Nos lan-galaf in Wales by lighting bonfires on the Is is possibly not yet quite extinct."

Here, then, we find the pagan fires transferred m the 8th to the 1st of November in Ireland, but

the Isle of Man this is not so. I will anticipate other reference to Rhys by stating that Martinmas d progressed from the 11th to the 24th before the ange of style had brought it back, old Martinis," November 24, being one of the best recognised ld English holidays," "old Candlemas" being other, at the other end of the May year, which d slipped from February 2 to February 15 before it is put back again.

With regard to the Isle of Man Rhys writes 2 it the feast is there called Hollantide, and is kept November 12, a reckoning which he states "is cording to the old style." The question is, are we dealing here with the Martinmas festival not edated to November 1? He adds, "that is the when the tenure of land terminates, and when ving men go to their places. In other words is the beginning of a new year. This is exactly at happens in Scotland, and the day is still called rtinmas.

There is a custom in mid-England which strikingly inds us of the importance of Martinmas in relato old tenures, if even the custom does not carry still farther back. This is the curious and insting ceremony of collecting the wroth silver, due payable to his Grace the Duke of Buccleuch and ensbury, on "Martinmas Eve." The payment is de on an ancient mound on the summit of KnightHill, about five miles out of Coventry, and in the ish of Ryton-on-Dunsmore. One feature about this gular ceremonial is that it must be observed before Frising. The money is now paid as a sort of high

1 Rhys, "Hibbert Lectures," p. 514.

2 "Celtic Folklore," p. 315.

way rate for the privilege of using certain roads in the Hundred of Knightlow, and, according to the ancient charter, the penalty is a fine of twenty shillings for every penny not forthcoming, or the forfeiture of a white bull with red nose and ears. There are no defaulters nowadays, and if there were it would certainly be difficult, if not impossible, to find a beast answering the above description, as this breed of cattle has become extinct. When the short ceremony is over, those taking part adjourn to a wayside inn, and there with glasses charged with hot rum and milk they toast the Duke's health. NORMAN LOCKYER.

SHOU

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"I had plenty of Eau de Cologne, and used it freely. One day when Bett-Bett smelt it, as I was sprinkling it over my dress, she screwed up her little black nose, and after half-a-dozen very audible sniffs, said- My word, Missus! That one goodfellow stink all right!

"Anyone can sing magic,' even lubras, but of course the wise old magic men do it best. It never fails with them, particularly if they 'sing' and point one of the special Death-bones or Sacred stones of the tribe. Generally a black fellow goes away quite by himself when he is singing magic,' but very occasionally a few men join together, as they did in the case of Goggle Eye... Of course the man who has been sung' must be told somehow, or he will not get a fright and die. There are many ways

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