PART II. LECTURES ON ETYMOLOGY. LECTURE I.-INTRODUCTORY. SECTION 1.-Definition and Use of Etymology.-Number and Variety of Words.-Arbitrary signs of ideas. Etymology signifies the derivation of a word from its original; and this second part of grammar treats of the different sorts of words, their various modifications, and their derivation. It comprehends the classification of words into different sorts, as Articles, Adjectives, Nouns, &c. the properties peculiar to each sort, and their various modifications or the different changes in the form and termination of words, on account of mood, tense, number, case, &c. and the derivation and composition of words; or the manner in which one word is deduced from another; as from to love comes lover ; from to visit, visiter, from to survive, surviver, &c. and the manner in which two or more words are compounded into one; as from the words. pen and knife, is formed the compound word penknife; from the words, not, with, and standing, is formed the word, notwithstanding, &c. In a philosophical point of view. Etymology is the science, which investigates the nature, origin, derivation, and composition of words. It is grammatical analysis, or the science of analyzing applied to language; and teaches to separate from one another the different parts of a sentence or an assemblage of words, in order to discover the elements, of which it is composed This is seen in the process of etymological parsing, which consists in the resolution of sentences into the different sorts of words of which they are composed; in assigning to each part of speech its several properties, and in tracing it through its various declensions and inflections. Though the number of elementary sounds is not great in any language, the variety of possible words, that may be formed by combining them, is, in every tongue, so great, as almost to exceed computation, and much more, than sufficient to express all the varieties of human thought. But the real words, even of the most copious language, may be numbered without difficulty; for a good dictionary comprehends them all, or nearly the whole of them. In the English tongue, after deducting proper names, and the inflections of our verbs and nouns, they do not exceed forty thousand. Words derive their meaning from the consent and practice of those, who use them. There is no necessary connexion between words and ideas. The association, between the sign and the thing signified, is purely arbitrary. If we were to contrive a new language, we might make any articulate sound the sign of any idea; there would be no impropriety in calling oxen men, or rational beings by the name of oxen. But where a language is already formed, they, who speak it, must use words in the customary sense. By doing otherwise, they incur the charge, either of affectation, if they mean only to be remarkable, or of falsehood, if they mean to deceive. To speak as others speak, is one of those taci obligations annexed to the condition of living in society, which we are bound in conscience to fulfil, though we have never ratified them by any express promise; because, if they were disregarded, society would be impossible, and human happiness at an end. It is true, that, in a book of science founded on definitions, words may be used in any sense, provided their meaning be explained. In this case there is no falsehood, because there is no intention to deceive. But, even in this case, if the common analogies of language were violated, the author would be justly blamed for giving unnecessary trouble to his readers, and for endeavouring capriciously to abrogate a custom, which universal use had rendered more respectable, as well as more convenient, than any other, which he could substitute in its room. SECTION 2. Of the different sorts of Words. The number of the different sorts of words, or of the parts of speech, has been variously reckoned by different grammarians. Some have enumerated ten, making the participle a distinct part; some eight excluding the participle, and ranking the adjective under the noun; some four, and others only two, (the noun and the verb.) supposing the rest to be contained in the parts of their di vision. We have followed those authors, who appear to have given them the most natural aud intelligible distribution. To assign names to objects of thought, and to express their properties and relations are the ouly indispensible requisites in language. If this be admitted, it follows, that the noun and the verb are the only parts of speech, which are essentially necessary; the former being the name of the thing of which we speak, and the latter expressing what we think of it. All other sorts of words must be regarded as subsidiaries, convenient indeed for the more easy communication of thought, but by no means indispensably requisite. The interjection. indeed, seems scarcely worthy of being considered as a part of artificial language or speech, being rather a branch of that natural language, which we possess in common with the brute creation, and by which we express the sudden emotions, that actuate our frame. But, as it is used in written as well as oral language, it may, in some measure, be deemed a part of speech.It is with us, a virtual sentence, in which the noun and verb are concealed under an imperfect or indigested word. Whilst some grammarians have objected to 'the usual number and arrangement of the parts of speech, others have disapproved of the terms, by which they have been designated. Instead of the generally received appellations of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, and conjunctions, they have adopted those of names, substitutes, attributes, modifiers, and connectives. This spirit of innovation has extended itself to other parts of grammar, and especially to the names of the tenses. Not satisfied with the ancient and approved terms, several writers, on the subject, have introduced the following, as more accurate and expressive;―Present tense indefinite, Present tense emphatic, Present progressive, or continued, Past tense continuately. Prior past tense indefinite. Preterite indef inite and emphatic; The foretelling future imperfect Prior future indefinite, Future imperfect progressive; and many others, corresponding with these, which it would be tedious to enumerate. Of what use such deviations from the customary established terms of ou best grammarians, can be productive we are unable to conceive. They certainly tend to perplex and confound the student, if their promoters advanced no further; but when we reflect, that the friends and projectors of such innovations may be continually altering and extending our grammatical nomenclature,— there appears to be additional reason for rejecting them. and adhering to long established names. These are universally intelligible; and, if preserved, would produce a happy uniformity among all the teachers and learners of the language. They have, likewise, a great similarity to 'he terms used in teaching other languages; and, on this ground also, it is highly proper to retain them. F We shall close our remarks on this subject, by introducing the sentiments of Dr. Johnson respecting it;-they are extracted from his "Grammar of the English Tongue."-" In this division and order of the parts of grammar, I fol. low (says he) the common grammarians, without inquiring whether a fitter distribution might not be found. Experience has long shown this method to be so distinct as to obviate confusion, and so comprehensive as to prevent any inconvenient omissions. I likewise use the terms already received, and already understood, though perhaps others more proper might sometimes be invented.Sylburgius and other innovators, whose new terms bave sunk their learning into neglect, have left sufficient warning against the trifling ambition of teaching arts in a new langnage." man. LECTURE II.-OF THE ARTICLES. Articles are prefixed to nouns, to limit their signification; as, a man, the woWhen the following word begins with a vowel or a silent h, the letter, n, is added to the article, a, for the sake of euphony, or a better sound; and to enable us to pass from the sound of the article to the sound of the following vowel with greater ease; as, an acorn, an hour. Here we perceive, that it would be neither agreeable to the ear, vor easy to the organs of speech, to say, a acorn, a hour; we therefore change a into an, to render the pronunciation more easy and agreeable. But euphony requires this change only in the cases above mentioned; and whenever the following word does not begin with a silent h, or with a vowel sound, the a only should be used; as, a hand, a heart. A, instead of an, should also be used before words beginning with u long; before the diphthongs, eu, and ew, having the sound of u long; and before the word, one ;—as, a union, a university, a useful book, a eunuch, a European, a ewe, a ewry, and the phrase, many a one. By attending to the pronunciation of these examples, we shall find, that they sound as if written, a yunion, a yuniversity, a yuseful book, a yunuch. a yuropean, a yew, (or a yoo) a yury, and many a wone. But y and w, are consonants, when they begin a word; and therefore such words do not require the euphonic article, an, to precede them An, however, must be used before words beginning with h, where the h, is not silent, if the accent is on the second syllable; as, an heroic action, an historical account, &c. But in monosyllables and words having the accent on the first syllable, great care should be taken to distinguish between h silent and h not silent. The inattention of writers and printers to this necessary distinction, has occasioned the frequent use of an before h, when it is to be pronounced; and this circumstance, more than any other, has probably contributed to that indistinct utterance, or total omission, of the sound signified by this letter, which very often occurs amongst readers and speakers. An horse, an husband, an herald, an heathen, and many similar associations, are frequently to be found in works of laste and merit. To remedy this evil, readers should be taught to omit, in all similar cases, the sound of the n, and to give the k its full pronunciation. A noun, without any article to limit it, is generally taken in its widest sense; as, "A candid temper is proper for man, that is, for all mankind. The article a, signifies one, or any one, or some one; and limits the signification of the noun following it to any single object, but to no particular one; as, Give me a book;' Bring me an apple,' that is, some one or any one book, or apple whatever.— Thou art a man ;" that is one (some one, any one) of the class of beings called man. Thus, the article, a, appears to be used in a vague sense, limiting the signification of the noun to one single thing of the kind in other respects indeterminute; and is therefore properly called the indefinite article. But the article the, limits the signification of the noun to the particular object or objects refer red to or spoken of before; as, "Give me the book;" "Bring me the apples ;" meaning some particular book or apples known and referred to, or which have been already mentioned. This article has nearly the same meaning with the demonstrative pronouns, this, that; these, those; and indeed, according to Horne Tooke, the and that are derived from the same Anglo-Saxon verb. and have precisely the same original signification, viz. said or foresaid; as "I saw the man yesterday;" or, "I saw that man yesterday;" that is, "I saw said man yesterday." It is, therefore, of the nature of both the articles to define or limit the thing spoken of. A determines it to be one single thing of the kind, leaving it still uncertain which :—the determines which it is, or of many, which they are. The following passage will serve as an example of the different uses of a and the, and of the force of the noun without any article. ·Man was made for society, and ought to extend his good will to all men;-but a man will natur ally entertain a more particular kindness for the men, with whom he has the most frequent intercourse; and enter into a still closer union with the man, whose temper and disposition suit best with his own. The peculiar use and importance of the articles will be further seen in the following examples; "The son of a king-the son of the king-a son of the king" Each of these three phrases has an entirely different meaning, through the different application of the articles, a and the. "Thou art a man," is a very general and harmless position; but, "Thou art the man." (as Nathan said to David,) is an assertion capable of striking ter Tor and remorse into the heart. The article is omitted before nouns that imply the different virtues, vices, passions. qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs. &c. as, " prudence is com mendable; falsehood is odious; anger ought to be avoided; &c. It is not prefixed to a proper name; as." Alexander.” (because that of itself denotes a determinate individual or particular thing.) except for the sake of distinguishing a particular family; as, "He is a Howard, or of the family of the Howards;" or by way of eminence; as," Every man is not a Newton;"" He has the courage of an Achilles ;" or when some noun is understood;" He sailed down the (river) Thames, in the (ship) Britannia." When an adjective is used with the noun to which the article relates, it is placed between the article and the nouo; as, “a good man,” an agreeable wo man," "the best friend." On some occasions. however, the adjective precedes a or an; as, “such a shame,' as great a man as Alexander," "to careless an author." 66 The indefinite article can be joined to nouns in the singular number only the definite article may be joined also to plurals. But there appears to be a remarkable exception to this rule, in the use of the adjectives, few and many, (the latter chiefly with the word great before it.) which though joined with plural substantives, yet admit of the singular article a; as, few men; a great many men. The reason of it is manifest from the effect, which the article has in these phrases; it means a small or great number collectively taken, and therefore gives the idea of a whole, that is, of unity. Thus likewise, a dozen, a score a hundred, or thousand, is one whole number, an aggregate of many collective ly taken; and therefore retains the article a, though joined as an adjective to a plural substantive; as, a hundred years, &c. The indefinite article is sometimes placed between the adjective many, and a singular noun ;-as, "Full many a gem of purest ray serene, "The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear; In these lines, the phrases, many a gem and many a flow'r refer to many gems and many flowers separately, not collectively considered. The definite article the is frequently applied to adverbs in the comparative and superlative degree; and its effect is to mark the degree the more strongly, and to define it the more precisely ;-as, "The more I examine it, the better I like it. I like this the least of any." That which is nearly connected with us, or with which, from its vicinity, we have been long acquainted, becomes eminent or distinguishable in our eyes, even though, in itself, and compared with other things of the same kind, it is of no particular importance. A person, who resides near a very little town, speaks of it by the name of the town. Every clergyman, within his own parish, is called the minister, or the parson ; and if, in a village, there be but one barber, or one smith, his neighbours think they distinguish him sufficiently by calling him the smith, or the barber. A tree, a rock, a hill, a river, a meadow, may be spoken of in the same manner, with the same emphasis. He is not returned from the hill; he is bathing in the river ; I saw him on the top of the rock; shall we walk in the meadow? A branch is blown down from the tree. these examples the definite article is used,—because the thing spoken of, being in the neighbourhood, is well known, and a matter of some consequence to the people, who are acquainted with it. In That we may perceive, still more clearly, the nature and significancy of the articles, let us put the one for the other, and mark the effect. When it is said, that the ancestors of the present royal family were kings in England three bundred years before the conqueror," the sense is clear; as every body knows, that the person here spoken of, by the name of the conqueror, is William, duke of Normandy, who subdued England about seven hundred and fifty years ago. But if we say, that, "the ancestors of the present royal family were kings in England three hundred years before a conqueror," we speak nonsense. Again, when it is said, that, “health is a most desirable thing," there is no man, who will not acquiesce in the position; which only means, that health is one of those things, that are to be very much desired. But if we take the other article, and say, "Health is the most desirable thing," we change the position from truth to falsehood; for this would imply, that nothing is so desirable as health; which is very wide of the truth, virtue and a good conscience being of infinitely greater value. On the whole, as articles are, by their nature, definitives, it follows of course, that they cannot be united with such words, as are, in their own nature, as definite as may be (the personal pronouns for instance ;) nor with such words as, being undefinable, cannot properly be made otherwise; (as the interrogative pronouns ;) but only with those words, which, though indefinite, are yet capable, by means of the article, of becoming definite. LECTURE III.-OF AD3 ECTIVES. SECTION 1.-Of the Nature of Adjectives. This part of speech may, not improperly. be called the adnoun; since it is a word added to a noun to modify the signification of the noun as an adverb is a word added to a verb to modify the signification of the verb. An adjective is merely the name of an object, with an intimation that the idea, expressed by it, is to be added to the idea expressed by the following noun; as, A golden ring. Here the adjective, golden, is the name of the object, gold, denoting by the annexation of the syllable, en, that the idea expressed by the word. gold, is to be added to the idea expressed by the noun, ring. So, in the phrases, a silken cord, a woolen string, Persian literature, African slavery. This intimation |