position and situation; and therefore no one thought it necessary to attempt farther discoveries or improvements in philosophy. Perhaps, too, it may be added, that the Romans looked up to the schools of Greece with a degree of respect, which would not suffer them to undertake any thing new, in a walk in which so many eminent men had exerted their talents. Despairing of doing more than had been already done by the illustrious founders of the several sects of philosophy, they thought it sufficient to make choice of some one of these as their guide. Hence Greece, which had submitted to the arms, in her turn subdued the understandings of the Romans; and, contrary to that which in these cases commonly happens, the conquerors adopted the opinions and manners of the conquered. The ancient Italic, or Pythagorean school, does not appear to have extended beyond that part of Italy formerly called Magna Grecia. And though afterwards the fame of this singular sect, and of the marvellous actions, and mysterious doctrines of its founder, reached the Romans, 17 and excited some degree of superstitious veneration among an ignorant people, it does not appear that Pythagoras had any followers in Rome before the seventh century from the building of the cit, unless the poet Ennius be reckoned such, concerning whom Persius intimates, that he adopted the Pythagorean doctrine of Metempsychosis, and supposed the soul of Homer to have passed, after several migra→ tions, into his body Cor jubet hoc Enni, postquam destertuit esse Publius Nigidius, surnamed Figulus, who was a contemporary and friend of Cicero, was a professed advocate for the doctrine of Pythagoras. Cicero 19 speaks of him as an accurate and penetrating inquirer into nature, and ascribes to him the revival of that philosophy, which formerly, for 17 Liv. I. 1. c. 8. Plin. Hist. N. l. xxxiv. c. 6. In Ennius' deathless strains, Strains, in the mould of sober reason cast, 19 De Universitate, c. i. VOL. II. 18 Sat. vi. v. 10. BREWSTER. several ages, flourished in the Pythagorean schools, both in Italy and Sicily. He was a considerable proficient in mathematical and astronomical learning, and, after the example of his master, applied his knowledge of nature to the purposes of imposture.20 He held frequent disputations with Cicero and his friends on philosophical questions. In civil affairs he attached himself to the party of Pompey; and, upon Cæsar's accession to the supreme power, he was banished from Rome. After his time, the Pythagorean doctrine was much neglected; few persons being now able to decipher, with accuracy, the obscure dogmas of this mysterious sect.22 23 21 The philosophy of the Old Academy, as it was revived and corrected by Antiochus, found many advocates at Rome. Among these, besides Lucullus, was the illustrious defender of Roman liberty, Marcus Brutus. Plutarch says of him, that there was no Greek philosopher, on whom he did not attend, nor any sect with whose tenets he was not conversant, but that he, for the most part, embraced the doctrine of Plato, and followed the Old rather than the New or Middle Academy; and, on this account, was a great admirer of Antiochus the Ascalonite, and admitted his brother Aristo into his confidence. Cicero relates the same, and adds, that "Brutus, excelling in every kind of merit, so successfully transplanted the Greek philosophy into the Latin tongue, as to render it almost unnecessary to have recourse to the original, in order to gain a competent knowledge of the subject." Notwithstanding his civil and military engagements, he wrote treatises on Virtue, on Patience, and on the Offices of Life; which, though in point of style concise even to abruptness, contained an excellent summary of ethics, framed partly from the doctrines of Plato, and partly from those of the stoical school:25 20 Apul Apol. A. Gell. 1. x. c. 11. 1. xi. c. 11. I. vi. 14. Dio, 1. xlv. p. 306. Suet. in Aug. c. 94. Lucan. Phars. l. i. v. 639, &c. Macrob. Sat. 1. vi. c. 8. l. ii. c. 12. Gell. 1. xi. c. 11. Plut. in Ciceron. Cic. 1. c. 21 Dio et Suet. 1. c. A. et Fam. Ep. 1. iv. ep. 31. 22 Val. Max. l. iv. c. 3. 24 In Bruto, c. ult. Ac. Q. 1. i. c. 3. 23 In Brut. t. v. p. 688, &c. 25 Plut. 1. c. Cic. Ep. Fam. 1. ix. ep. 15. Dialog. de Caus. corr. eloq. Tusc. Q. I. v. c. 1. Cons. ad. Helv. c. 9. Ad Attic. I. xii. cp. 46. for Brutus, after his master Antiochus, was disposed to favour the union of these two sects. It reflects immortal honour upon the memory of Brutus, that he was a philosopher in actions as well as in words. His gentle manners, his noble mind, his entire self-command, and his inflexible integrity, rendered him beloved by his friends, and admired by the multitude, and would not suffer even his enemies to hate or despise him. If it be thought, that he tarnished the lustre of his merit by lifting up his hand against Cæsar, it should be remembered, that in the soul of a Roman, whilst Roman virtue remained, every private passion was lost in the love of his country. The ardour of his patriotic spirit would not suffer him to survive that public liberty which he could no longer preserve; and, after the example of his uncle Cato, he fell by his own hand: an action, which, though nothing can justify, such a situation may be allowed in some measure to excuse. 26 Another ornament of the Old Academy was M. Terentius Varro, who was borne at Rome in the 638th year of the city. Cicero, in a letter in which he recommends him as a quæstor to Brutus, 28 assures the commander, that he would find him perfectly qualified for the post, and particularly insists upon his good sense, his indifference to pleasure, and his patient perseverance in business. To these virtues he added uncommon abilities, and large stores of knowledge, which qualified him for the highest offices of the state. He attached himself to the party of Pompey, and in the time of the triumvirate was proscribed with Cicero: and, though he escaped with his life, he suffered the loss of his library, and of his own writings; a loss, which would be severely felt by one who had devoted a great part of his life to letters.29 Returning, at length, to Rome, he spent his last years in literary leisure. He died in the 727th year of the city. His prose writings were exceedingly numerous, and treated of various topics in antiquities, chronology, geography, natural and civil history, philosophy and criticism. He was, besides, a poet of some distinction, and wrote in almost * Plut. I. c. p. 706. Florus, l. iv. c. 7. Dio, lib. 47. B. C. 115. 28 Ep. Fam. I. xiii. ep. 10. A. Gell. I. iii. c. 10. Plin. N. Hist. 1. xxix. c. 4. Sen. ad Helv. c. 8. Arnob. adv. Gent. l. v. p. 158. Aug. dẹ Civ. D. l. iv. c. 1. 1. vi. c. 2. 1. xii. c. 4. l. xix. c. 1. Quint. Inst. 1. x. c. 1. Lact. l. i. c. 6. every kind of verse. His piece De re rustica, "On Agriculture," and a few fragments, are all that is extant of his works,30 To Varro we may add M. Piso, whom Cicero introduces as maintaining at large the opinion of the Old Academy concerning moral ends, not, however, without a mixture of the Peripatetic doctrine, which he had learned at Athens from Staseas, a Peripatetic preceptor. 31 31 The Middle Academy, no less than the Old, had its patrons at Rome. A small degree of attention to the state of philosophy at this time will be sufficient to discover the cause. The systems of the dogmatic philosophers lay open to so many objections, and in many particulars rested upon so precarious a foundation, as to afford great encouragement to scepticism. Many wise men, when they observed the contradictory opinions which were advanced by different sects, and the plausible arguments by which opposite doctrines were supported, were inclined to look upon truth as a treasure, which lies too deep to be fathomed by the line of the human understanding, and contented themselves, with such probable conclusions, as were sufficient for the practical purposes of life. The Middle Academy, therefore, which was founded upon a conviction of the imbecility of human reason, without running, with the Pyrrhonists, into the extravagance of an entire suspension of opinion, became a favourite sect among the Romans. It was peculiarly suited to the character of a public pleader, as it left the field of disputation perfectly free, and would inure him to the practice of collecting arguments from all quarters, on opposite sides of every doubtful question. Hence it was that Cicero, under the instruction of Philo, addicted himself to this sect, and without difficulty persuaded others to follow his example. This illustrious Roman, who eclipsed all his contemporaries in eloquence, has also acquired no small share of reputation as a philosopher. It will, therefore, be necessary that we enter 32 30 Cic. Ac. Q. 1. i. c. 2, 3. Quint. I. i. c. 4. Fabric. Bib. Lat. t. i. l. 1. c. 7. p. 76. 31 Cic. de Fin. l. v. c. 1. Conf. Lact. 1. i. c. 15. iii. 14. Quint. I. x. c. 1. Macrob. in Somn. Scip. I. i. c. 17. 27. Plut. in Cicer. t. vi. p. 55. Erasm. ep. 1. xxvii. ep. 1. l. ii. ep. 26. Horn. Hist. Phil. 1. iv. c. 5. 11. §7. Fab. Bib. Lat. t. ii. p. 165. Morhoff, Polyh, t. i. l. iv. c. into the particulars of his life, so far as may enable us to form a judgment concerning his real merit in this ca pacity. 34 Marcus Tullius Cicero was born at Arpinum, in the 647th year of the city. During his childhood he distinguished himself in literary contests with his compa nions, and studied under several masters, among whom he particularly mentions Plotius, a Greek preceptor, Phæ drus, an Epicurean philosopher, and Archias, the poet. He made several juvenile attempts in poetry; but, if we may judge from the few fragments of his verses which remain, with no great degree of success. After he had finished his puerile studies, he applied his mature judgment to philosophy under Philo of Larissa; a philosopher, who was held in the highest esteem among the Romans, both for his learning and manners. From the same preceptor he also received instruction in rhetoric; for, from the first, Cicero made philosophy subservient to eloquence. 35 In the eighteenth year of his age, Cicero studied law under the direction of Mucius Scævola, an eminent augur, to whom he was introduced by his father, when he put on the manly dress, with this advice, never to lose an opportunity of conversing with that wise and excellent man. 36 After a short interval, in which he engaged in military expeditions, first under Sylla, then under Pompey, he returned with great impatience to his studies. At this time he put himself under the constant tuition of Diodotus, a Stoic, chiefly for the sake of exercising himself in dialectics, which the Stoics considered as a restricted kind of eloquence, but not without an assiduous attention to many other branches of study, in which this learned philosopher was well qualified to instruct him. About the age of twenty years, he translated into the Latin tongue Xenophon's Economics, and several books of Plato. A specimen of |