sists in tranquil delight. The fountain of this delight is the rational love of man and of God. Internal love and reverence are all the homage which nature teaches us to pay to God. With respect to God the two capital errors are atheism and superstition. Superstition is worse than atheism. The love of God is a supernatural affection, which prepares the soul for future felicity. The rational love of man comprehends all social virtues. Rational self-love includes self-preservation, temperance, purity, industry, fortitude. To wise men, virtue is its own reward. Laws are appointed for the sake of fools, to conduct them to internal tranquillity, and external peace. Of fools, there are three classes-those who disturb external peace; those who do nothing to promote it; and those who do not enjoy internal peace. The first have need of authority; the second of authority and counsel; the third of counsel alone. The obligation of authority and law extends only to external actions, which are just when they are conformable to law; justice is therefore to be distinguished from virtue, which respects the internal man, and requires a conformity to the law of nature. These specimens of the philosophy of Thomas discover some originality of thought, but contain too many hasty and ill-founded positions, and breathe too much of the spirit of Mysticism, to merit any considerable share of attention. The author principally deserves notice in this work on account of the boldness with which he threw off the yoke of ancient authority, and the perseverance with which, in the midst of much opposition, and many vicissitudes of fortune, he maintained and exercised the right of free inquiry.* SECT. IX. Of Christian Wolfe. No philosopher has been more generally or justly celebrated in Germany than Christian Wolfe," born at Breslau, in the year 1679. • Vidend. Schurtzfleisch. Ep, Arc. 379. Juneker de Ephemerid. Erud. c. 17. Bayle Lettres, t. iii. p. 446. Stollii Lit. Hist. p. iii. c. 5. § 30. Hollman Theol. Nat. c. 1. § 19. p. 79. 42 Pinacotheca Script. illust. Dee. i. ii. x. 1755. Hal, 4to. Ludovici Hist. Phil. Wolf. Gottschedii Elog. Wolf. Langii Synops. Script. After having been well instructed in the rudiments of learning and science in his own country, Wolfe prosecuted his studies successively in the universities of Jena, Hamburgh, and Leipsic. At the age of twenty-six, he had acquired so much distinction in the schools, that he was appointed professor of mathematics, and soon afterwards of philosophy in general, in the university of Hall; and science received considerable improvements from his researches. After Leibnitz had published his Theodicea, Wolfe, struck with the novelty of the metaphysical edifice which that philosopher had raised, was ambitious of the honour of making some additions to the structure, and assiduously laboured in the investigation of new metaphysical truths. He also digested the Elements of Mathematics in a new method, and attempted an improvement of the art of reasoning, in a treatise "On the Powers of the Human Understanding." Upon the foundation of Leibnitz's doctrine of Monads, he formed a new system of Cosmology and Pneumatology, digested and demonstrated in a mathematical method. This work, entitled "Thoughts on God, the World, and the Human Soul," was published in the year 1719; to which were added, in a subsequent edition, "Heads of Ethics and Policy." Wolfe was now rising towards the summit of philosophical reputation, when the opinion which he entertained on the doctrine of necessity being deemed by his colleagues inimical to religion; and an oration, which he delivered in praise of the morality of the Chinese having given much offence; an accusation of heresy was publicly brought against him in the university of Hall, and afterwards transferred to the courts of Berlin: and, though he attempted to justify himself in a treatise which he wrote on the subject of fatality, a royal mandate was issued, in November, 1723, requiring him to leave the Prussian dominions. Having been formerly invited by the Landgrave of Hesse Cassel, to fill a professorial chair in the university of Cassel, Wolfe now put himself under the patronage of that prince, who had the liberality to afford him a secure asylum, and appointed him professor of mathematics and philosophy. The question concerning the grounds of the censure which had been passed upon Wolfe, was now every where freely canvassed; almost every German university was inflamed with disputes on the subject of liberty and necessity; and the names of Wolfians and Anti-Wolfians were every where heard. After an interval of nine years, the current of public opinion turned in favour of Wolfe, and the King of Prussia reversed his sentence of exile, and appointed him vice-chancellor of the university of Hall; where his return was welcomed with every expression of triumph. From this time he was employed in completing his institutes of philosophy, which he lived to accomplish in every branch except policy, In 1745, he was created a Baron by the Elector of Bavaria, and succeeded Ludowig in the office of chancellor of the university. He continued to enjoy these honours till the year 1754, when he expired. Wolfe possessed a clear and methodical understanding, which by long exercise in mathematical investigations, was particularly fitted for the employment of digesting the several branches of knowledge into regular systems; and his fertile powers of invention enabled him to enrich almost every field of science, in which he laboured, with some valuable additions. The lucid order which appears in all his writings, enables his reader to follow his conceptions, with ease and certainty, through the longest trains of reasoning. But the close connexion of the several parts of his works, together with the vast variety and extent of the subjects on which he treats, renders it impracticable to give a summary of his doctrines.* Vidend. Wolf. Declar. de Scriptis prop. Rothfischer. Victoria Veritatis Nov. Lit. Lips. 1723. Formey Eloges des Academ, de Berlin, t. ii. Elogium Historicum de Wolf, Hal. 1755. CHAP. III. OF MODERN ECLECTIC PHILOSOPHERS WHO HAVE ATTEMPTED IMPROVEMENTS IN PARTICULAR BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY. SECT. I. Of Modern Attempts to improve Dialectics AMONG the moderns who have renounced implicit respect for ancient authority, and, upon the true Eclectic plan of gathering up wisdom from every quarter, have attempted to enlarge the boundaries of human knowledge, besides those who have been, or have wished to be thought, reformers of universal philosophy, innumerable learned men have appeared, who have directed their attention towards the improvement of particular sciences. To take no notice of these, might be justly deemed a material defect in a general history of philosophy. At the same time it must be evi< dent to every one who is tolerably acquainted with the philosophical world, that to give a distinct view of the modern state of every branch of science, would be in itself a task still more laborious than that which we have endeavoured to execute. Such a work would require, not only biographical memoirs of those writers who have distinguished themselves in each department, but a distinct delineation and accurate comparison of their various systems and opinions; an undertaking too extensive and important to be attempted at the close of the present work. The intelligent reader will therefore expect, in this chapter, nothing more than an enumeration of a few of the more singular and important facts, respecting the improvement of particular branches of philosophy, which occurred between the period of the revival of letters, and the commencement of the present century. Although, about the time of the Reformation, many learned men, particularly Valla, Agricola, and Vives, spoke with great freedom of the defects of the Aristotelian Logic, no one attempted to substitute a better in its stead, till Peter Ramus undertook the task, and executed it with a degree of courage and success, which has justly given his name considerable celebrity. Peter Ramus, or De la Ramee,43 who was born in 1515, in a village of Vermandois, was a servant in the college of Navarre at Paris. Here, by his own industry, he gathered up the rudiments of learning, and became acquainted with the logic of Aristotle. His talents and perseverance at last procured him a more honourable station in the college, and he became a candidate for the degree of master of philosophy. Upon this occasion he held a public disputation against the authority of Aristotle, in which he maintained his thesis with such ingenuity and ability as confounded his examiners. From this time Ramus determined to exert his utmost efforts to overturn the Aristotelian Logic, and to introduce a better method of reasoning. He wrote "Animadversions upon Aristotle," in which he inveighed with great vehemence against his Organon, and to which he subjoined new" Institutes of Dialectics." These bold attacks upon a system which had for ages been universally admired, gave great offence, as might be expected, to the Peripatetics, and raised a violent storm of resentment against Ramus. At first his adversaries made use of no other weapons against him than those of logic and eloquence, sufficiently envenomed, however, with spleen and calumny. But they at length proceeded to harsher measures. A complaint was brought to the civil magistrate, in the name of the Academy, that Ramus, in opposing Aristotle, had committed open hostility against religion and learning. The affair engaged the public attention; and the king ordered, that Ramus and his chief antagonist, Antony Govea, should hold a public disputation, and that each party should choose two judges, and the king appoint an umpire. In the course of the contest, Ramus complained of unfair proceedings on the part of his antagonist; but could obtain no redress, for three of his judges were against him. The accusation was confirmed; the penalty 43 Vita scripta a Freigio, Nancelio, Banosio, Sammarthano, Bayle. Launois De Fort. Arist. c. 14. Galland. in Vit. Castellani, n. 4, 5. Thuanus ad Ann. 1572. Verulam Impet. Ph. v. iii. Op. p. 462. |