they have been so successfully guided into new fields of science. The numerous desiderata which he has suggested in almost every branch of science, have furnished hints to succeeding philosophers, which have greatly contributed towards the leading object of all his philosophical labours, the advancement of learning.

Bacon was now desirous of becoming a faithful and useful guide to others in the pursuit of knowledge, by pointing out to them the best method of employing their reasoning faculties on the several objects of philosophy; and for this purpose wrote his Novum Organon, a treatise which the author himself esteemed the most valuable of his works. Rejecting the syllogistic method of reasoning, as a mere instrument of Scholastic disputation, which could not be applied with any advantage to the study of nature, he attempts, in this work, to substitute in its stead the method of induction, in which natural objects are subjected to the test of observation and experiment, in order to furnish certain facts as the foundation of general truths. By this expedient he hoped to remove those obstructions to the progress of knowledge, the prejudices (called by our author Idole) arising from ancient authority, from false methods of reasoning, or from the natural imbecility of the human mind. Physical Experiment, the organ or instrument which he proposed for the investigation of nature, he considered. as the only effectual method of drawing men off from those uncertain speculations, which, contributing nothing towards, discovering the true nature of things, only serve to bewilder the imagination, and confound the judgment. For the particular precepts which Bacon prescribed for this purpose, we must refer the reader to the work itself, which will amply repay the labour of a diligent perusal. The great number of new terms which the author introduces, and the complex mode of arrangement which he adopts, cast indeed some degree of obscurity over the work, and have perhaps rendered it less useful than it would otherwise have been: but the reader who has the courage to overcome these difficulties will meet with many excellent observations, which may materially contribute, even in the present advanced state of natural knowledge, to the improvement of science. But the principal value of this work is,

that it represents in the most lively colours, the nature, the strength, and the mischievous effects of prejudice, and lays open the various circumstances which have, in all ages, hindered the free and successful pursuit of knowledge.

The way being thus prepared, Bacon applied himself chiefly to the improvement of that branch of philosophy which best suited his inclination, physics; and, though he did not attempt to frame a system of natural philosophy, he wrote several treatises, which contain original observations on various branches of natural science, but are chiefly valuable as a pattern to posterity, of the manner in which these researches should be pursued. His philosophical treatises are Of Words; Of Rarefaction and Condensation; Of Sympathy; Of Life and Death; Of the Three Chemical Principles; Of Bodies, heavy and light; On speculative and essential Physics; Description of the Intellectual World; Plan of the Heavens; On the Tides; The Philosophy of Parmenides, Telesius, and Democritus; Indications for the Interpretation of Nature; Of the Wisdom of the Ancients; A History of Nature; and, A new Atlantis. Besides these he wrote several moral, political, and historical pieces, somewhat obscure in expression, but full of profound thought and just reflection, and worthy of an attentive and frequent perusal. This latter class of his writings is enlivened with examples, narratives, apothegms, similes, and many other decorations. His entire works have been published in England, Holland, and Germany.

The only thing to be regretted in the writings of Bacon is, that he has increased the difficulties necessarily attending his original and profound researches, by too freely making use of new terms, and by loading his arrangement with an excessive multiplicity and minuteness of divisions. But an attentive and accurate reader, already not unacquainted with philosophical subjects, will meet with no insuperable difficulties in studying his works, and, if he be not a wonderful proficient in science, will reap much benefit as well as pleasure from the perusal. In fine, Lord Bacon, by the universal consent of the learned world, is to be ranked in the first class of modern philosophers. He unquestionably belonged to that superior order of men,

who, by enlarging the boundaries of human knowledge, have been benefactors to mankind; and he may not improperly be styled, on account of the new track of science which he explored, the Columbus of the philosophical world.15

SECT. IV.

Of Thomas Campanella.

Ar the same time that Bacon was improving philosophy in Britain, attempts of a similar kind, but with far inferior success, were made in Italy by Campanella, a man whose natural genius prompted him to bold innovations.

Thomas Campanella," a native of Calabria, was born in the year 1568. From his infancy he discovered a wonderful memory, and a singular genius. At thirteen years of age he was able to write verses with great facility. Having been early instructed in theological subjects, his first ambition was to rival the fame of the great Albert, and Thomas Aquinas; and he entered his name in that monastic order which they had so much adorned, the fraternity of Dominicans. In the convent of San Giorgio, he engaged with great industry and ardour in the study of philosophy; but he soon discovered the sterility of the ancient method of philosophizing, and, after in vain seeking for satisfaction from Aristotle or Plato, Zeno or Epicurus, he had recourse, when he was about eighteen years of age, to a modern master, who had professed to study the nature of things rather than the speculations of philosophers. The philosophy of Telesius about this time engaging much attention in Italy, Campanella read his treatise "On the Nature of Things," and was so much captivated with the bold and free spirit of this work, that he determined to leave the barren desert of the Aristotelian Scholastics, for the more pleasant and fruitful fields of the Telesian phi

16 Vidend. Oper. Lond. 1740. 1765.

17 E. S. Cypriani Vit. Camp. Amst. 1705. Niceron. Mem. Lit. t. i. Erythr. Pinacoth. 1. i. p. 41. Struv. Act. Lit. fasc. ii. p. 71. Stollii Hist. Lit. p. ii. c. i. § 91.

losophy. He wrote a defence of Telesius against Antoninus Marta, who had undertaken the refutation of that philosopher's doctrine, in a work entitled Pugnaculum Aristotelis, "A Defence of Aristotle," and came to Naples to publish his work, which was entitled, Philosophia Sensibus demonstrata," Philosophy demonstrated to the Senses."

The contempt with which Campanella, in this work, treated the authority of Aristotle, raised a violent ferment among his monastic brethren, which was still further increased by the bold and decisive tone with which he contradicted long established tenets in public disputations. Supported however by wealthy patrons, and still more by his own firm and independent spirit, he persevered in the design which he had long formed of attempting the refor mation of philosophy. He wrote two treatises, one, De Sensu Rerum, "On Sensation;" the other, De Investigatione," On Investigation," from a persuasion, as he himself says, that it was necessary to point out to young men, some better way to the knowledge of things than Aristotle or Plato had taught, and that they should be instructed to reason, not after the manner of Raymond Lully, upon mere words, but upon sensible objects.

Neither the power of his genius, nor the patronage of his friends, could, however, secure Campanella from insult and persecution. To escape these, he removed from Naples to Rome, and afterwards to Florence, Venice, Padua, and Bologna. At last he settled in his native country, and, probably, in order to cover his innovations with the shield of orthodoxy, wrote in defence of the see of Rome. But, notwithstanding this precaution, he soon fell under suspicions which proved fatal to him. He was accused of being concerned in a conspiracy against the King of Spain and the Neapolitan government, and, after undergoing torture, was confined in prison about twentyseven years, during a great part of which time he was denied the privilege of reading and writing. As soon as this indulgence was granted him, he wrote several books, among which were a treatise on the Spanish Monarchy, and his "Real Philosophy." These he sent into Germany to be published. Many attempts were made by his friends to obtain his liberation; but they were unsuccess

ful, till Pope Urban VIII. a patron of learned men, prevailed upon Philip IV. of Spain to grant him an acquittal from the charge of treason. In 1626 he was set at liberty; but finding himself still insecure in Italy, he found means, under the connivance and favour of the pope, to escape to France, where he experienced the favour of Cardinal Richlieu, who procured for him a pension from Louis XIII. He passed the remainder of his days in a Dominican monastery at Paris, where he continued to enjoy the society of many learned men, till, in the seventy-first year of his age, he expired.

Campanella was confessedly a man of genius; but his imagination predominated over his judgment. Innumerable proofs of this may be found in his astrological writings, in his book De Sensu Rerum, and in many other parts of his works. Can it be doubted that a man, who gave credit to the art of astrology; who believed that he was cured of a disease by the words and prayers of an old woman; who thought that demons appeared to him, and conversed with him; and who persuaded himself, that when any danger threatened him, he was, between sleeping and waking, warned of it by a voice which called him by his name; was destitute of that sound judgment which is so essential a quality in the character of a philosopher? But notwithstanding all his childish credulity, and all the eccentricity of his genius, Campanella had his lucid and happy intervals, in which he reasoned soberly. He is chiefly worthy of praise for the freedom with which he exposed the futility of the Aristotelian philosophy, and for the pains which he took to deduce natural science from observation and experience.18 Of the numerous writings which his fertile imagination produced, the most celebrated are, Prodomus Philosophiæ Instaurandæ, “ A Precursor to the Restoration of Philosophy;" Atheismus triumphatus, "Atheism subdued;" De Gentilismo non retinendo, "On the Rejection of Paganism;" Astrologica, "On Astrology;" Philosophia rationalis, "Rational Philosophy;" Civitas Solis, "The City of the Sun;" Universalis Philosophia," Universal Philosophy;" De Libris

18 Conring. de Prud. Civ. c. 14. Adami Præf. Prodrom, Ph. Camp. Id. in Epilogismo.