peculiar to the Christian system. In the elegant verses interspersed with this work, the intelligent reader will discover many traces of the Platonic philosophy, as it was then taught by Syrian, Proclus, and Marinus. Boethius wrote two treatises, De Arithmetica, "On Arithmetic;" five books, De Unitate et Uno, "On Unity and One;" Institutio Musica, "Institutes of Music," and other pieces. He had formed a design of translating all the works of Plato and Aristotle into Latin, but was prevented from executing his purpose by a premature death. Having with great freedom censured the conduct of Theodoric, he was banished into Persia, and, after a short interval, beheaded. It was during his exile that he wrote, for the relief of his own mind, his Treatise on Consolation, which discovers an extent of learning and purity of taste worthy of a better age. Boethius died about the year 526.

Towards the close of the fifth century flourished Æneas Gaza, a Pagan by birth, by profession a Sophist, a dis-ciple of Hierocles, and, after his conversion, a Christian philosopher. His dialogue entitled Theophrastus, in which he maintains the immortality of the soul and the resurrection of the body, has rescued his name from oblivion. In this poem, although he professedly writes against the Platonists, the doctrines of Platonism and Christianity are confounded.66

In the sixth century, Zecharias, surnamed the Scholastic, acquired some distinction among Christian philosophers. He was educated at Alexandria, and at length, for his learning and piety, was placed at the head of the church of Mitylene, in Lesbos. Gaza wrote a treatise against the Manichæans, "On the doctrine of Two Principles in Nature;" and a Dialogue against the Eternity of the World.67Another Christian philosopher, who wrote upon the same subject, against the disciples of Proclus, was Joannes Philoponus, a grammarian of Alexandria. He was more inclined to the Peripatetic than the Platonic system, and wrote commentaries upon Aristotle. Philoponus was pro

s Fabr. Bib. Lat. t. i. p. 642. t. iii. p. 202.

de Fab. Bib. Gr. v. i. p. 427. v. vii. p. 99. v. xiii. p. 458. 508.

7 Cave Hist. Lit. Ser. Ecc. p. 227. Fabr. Syllab. Script, de Vir. Ch. R. p. 107.

tected by Amrum, the Saracen commander, in the year 640, when he was probably about eighty years of age; for he was patriarch of Constan tinople under the emperor Justin II.68

The last name which we shall add to this series of Christian fathers, who might be ranked among philosophers, is that of Nemesius,69 whose age is uncertain, but is supposed by his editor70 to have flourished about the close of the fourth century. He was the author of a treatise "On the Nature of Man," which is one of the most elegant specimens, now extant, of the philosophy which prevailed among the ancient Christians. The writer relates and examines the opinions of the Greek philosophers on the subject of his dissertation with great perspicuity of thought, and correctness of language. But the treatise is chiefly curious, as it discovers a degree of acquaintance with physiology, not to be paralleled in any other writers of this period. He treats clearly concerning the use of the bile, the spleen, the kidneys, and other glands of the human body, and seems to have had some idea of the circulation of the blood. In fine, though, on account of the uncertainty of his date, Nemesius is mentioned last in the present series, he merits a place of no inconsiderable distinction among the ancient Christian philosophers.*

s Fab, 1. c. p. 108. et Bib. Gr. v. vii. p. 358. v. ix. p 363. Phot. Cod. $215.55. 75. 69 Fabr. Syll. c.2. $30.

70 Pref. Edit. Oxon. Conf. Friend's Hist. Physic.

Vidend. Cave's Lives of the Fathers, and Eccl. Antiq. Tenzel. Exerc. Select. p. i. p. 179. 210. Fabr. Bib, Gr. v. v. p. 56. 81. 88. Fabric. Syllog. Script. de Ver. Christ. Rel, Longuerve de Tatiano ap. Orat. Ittig. de Hæresiarch. ævi, ap. c. 12. Petav. Dogm. Theol. I. i. c. 3. Huet. Orig. 1. ii. c. 2. 9. Ittig. select. cap. Hist. Ecc. s. ii. c. 3. Huet. de Fab. Rom. p. 53. Massuet. Diss. ad Irenæum. Whiston's Prim. Christ. p. iv. art. 7. Deyling, de Iren. Test. Ver. §42. Vinc. Lirin. Commonit, c. 24. Pamelii Vit. Tertulliani. Barbeyrac de la Morale des Peres, c. 6. 8. Dupin. Bibl Ser. Ecc. t. i. p. 104. Le Clerc. Bibl. Un. t. x. p. 175. 193. R. Montacutius Orig. Ecel, l. ¡j. p. 52. Clerici Ep. Crit, i. p. 18. Otium Vindal. Mel. i. Gaudentii Diss. de Compar. Dogm. Orig. cum Dogm. Platonis, Flor. 1639. De fa Rue Præt. Op. Orig. Cudworth's Intell. System,jd.w. s. iii. § 34. Journal de Scavans, 1734. May, Art..4. Le Clerc, Ep. vij Histoire de Boete, Par. 1715, 120, Tillemont. Mem. Eccl. t. xii. de Syr nesio, Boysen, Diss. de Phil. Synesii. Lardner's Account of the Christian Fathers in his Credibility of the Gospel History, Part ii. passim.

OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE CHRISTIANS IN THE MIDDLE AGE.

CHAP. I.

OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE GREEK CHRISTIANS, FROM THE SEVENTH CENTURY TO THE TAKING OF CONSTANTINOPLE BY THE TURKS.

HAVING related the philosophical history of the Ancient Christians, that is, of those who lived in the first six centuries of the Christian era, our plan requires that we proceed to inquire into the state of philosophy in the period of darkness called the Middle Age, which lasted from the beginning of the seventh century till the revival of letters in the fourteenth.

About the beginning of this period, under the Christian emperors, the Sectarian philosophy, together with Pagan superstition, was nearly extinct: and, in consequence of the irruption of the Northern Barbarians, almost the whole western world was overwhelmed with intellectual darkness. This part of the history of philosophy resembles a barren wilderness, where the traveller is fatigued with beholding dreary wastes, in which he meets with scarcely a single object to relieve his eye, or amuse his fancy. Yet, in order to preserve the connexion of facts, and account for the state of philosophy after the revival of letters, it will be necessary to trace with attention the great changes through which philosophy passed during this period. The order we shall observe will be, first to represent the state of phi losophy in the East to the taking of Constantinople, when the eastern world ceased to philosophize, and the Greek philosophers passed over into the West; secondly, to relate

its condition in the western world from the seventh to the twelfth century; and lastly, to subjoin the history of the Scholastic Philosophy, which flourished from that time to the revival of letters.

The fate of the Platonic school having been already related, it is only necessary to remind the reader, that although the Pagan philosophers, who, in consequence of Justinian's interdict, had taken refuge in Persia under Chosroës, returned about the middle of the sixth century into the Roman empire,' the Eclectic sect, as such, did not long survive. Still, however, the spirit, and many of the tenets of this school, remained among the clergy of the Christian church, the generality of whom tenaciously adhered to opinions which, inconsistent as they were with the pure doctrine of Christianity, had been embraced and propagated by the Christian fathers. The followers of Origen, whose tenets were chiefly borrowed from the Alexandrian philosophy and theology, were particularly attached to this system. Of these the greater part were monks, who were induced, by a superstitious zeal for the rigorous discipline which he established, to profess his doctrine in the face of persecution. The enthusiastic spirit which was fostered by the writings of Origen, and by those of the supposed Dionysius already mentioned, established in the monasteries a mystical kind of theology, which was from this time embraced both in the eastern and western world.

From the commencement of the same period, the Aristotelian philosophy, which had for several past centuries languished, began to revive and flourish. In the early ages of the Christian church, the tenets of Aristotle being understood to militate strongly against the doctrines of Christianity, the Christian fathers had in general been exceedingly adverse to the Peripatetic sect. But, when the orthodox clergy saw the ingenious and successful use which many heretics made of the art of logic, they began by degrees to endure, and at length to admire and study, the dialectics of Aristotle, which were now translated into the Syriac language by Christians living under the Saracens. In the numerous contests which were at this time conducted

Procopius in Anecdotis.

with so much acrimony among the several sects of Christians, each had recourse to these artificial methods of disputing. At a time when men were daily losing sight of common sense and simple truth, every champion for a sys tem, whether orthodox or heretical, imagined that he rendered eminent service to the church, when he covered its supposed doctrines with the formidable redoubt of defini tions and syllogisms. Thus the Aristotelian philosophy gradually rose into repute, till at length it so far triumphed over Platonism, that, whilst we only meet with a few individuals among the Greek Christians who were acquainted with the Platonic philosophy, great numbers studied and taught the Peripatetic. The more celebrated of these we shall distinctly mention.

The first who, after Philoponus, distinguished himself among the Greek Christians as an admirer, and, as far as was not wholly inconsistent with his Christian profession, a follower of Aristotle, was Joannes Damascenus. He flourished at the beginning of the eighth century. In early life he filled a high station in the court of the Saracen caliph; but afterwards retired to the monastery of St. Sabas, that he might be at leisure to prosecute his studies. With due. allowance for the age in which he lived, he was a great master of mathematical and philosophical learning. The Arabians were much indebted to this Christian philosopher for their deliverance from barbarism. Among his writings are an explanation of dialectics, under the title of Capita Philosophica," "Heads of Philosophy;" "Dissertations on the Three Parts of the Soul, the Four Virtues, and the Five Faculties;" "Sacred Parallels;" and "An Accurate Delineation of the Orthodox Faith." This latter work is, perhaps, the first attempt which was made to apply the language and arrangements of the Peripatetic philosophy to theology, and to form what has since been called, A Body of Divinity. Hence some have considered Joannes Damascenus as the father of the Scholastics. It is certain, that his example was afterwards followed by a long train of - Christian writers. To him therefore ought, in some measure, to be ascribed the mischiefs which arose from the

Op. Ed. à M. Le Quien, Par, 1712, 2 vol. fol. Fabr. Bib. Gr. v. fi. ~ p. 777,