Isaac Israel Toletanus was an eminent astronomer and chronologer.19

To facilitate the study of Aristotle among the Jews, his writings were translated (it may be presumed, not very ac curately) from the Arabic (for the Greek was at this time little read) into the Hebrew tongue. Several other ancient works, particularly the Elements of Euclid, and the medical writings of the Greeks, towards the close of the thirteenth century, appeared in a Hebrew dress. So highly was the name of Aristotle now respected among the Jews, that they not only called him the prince of philosophers, but maintained that his philosophy was the perfection of human science, and could only be excelled by the doctrine of Divine Revelation. In order to screen themselves from censure for submitting to receive wisdom from a heathen philosopher, they pretended that Aristotle was himself a proselyte to Judaism, and was indebted to Solomon for a great part of his philosophy.20 The Rabbi Chanania ben Isaac wrote "Institutes of the Philosophers;" a collection of moral precepts and apophthegms from the ancients. In the work already mentioned, written about this time, under the title of Cosri, or, more accurately, Hachosari, Aristotelian principles were employed in demonstrating the truth of the Jewish religion: it may be considered as a specimen of Jewish philosophy in the Middle Age.

21

The most celebrated names among the learned Jews of this period are Abraham ben Muir aben Esra, and Moses ben Maimon, or Maimonides.

Aben Esra was born at Toledo, in Spain, and flourished about the middle of the twelfth century. On account of his profound erudition, he was not only called the Wise, but the Great, and the Wonderful. He travelled for the purpose of acquiring knowledge, and far surpassed his brethren both in sacred and profane learning. He wrote theological, grammatical, mathematical, and astrological works, many of which remain in ancient libraries, not yet edited.22

19 Wolf. p. 663.

R. A. Tibbon.

22 Shalsheleth. p. 41.

Wolf. p. 146. 764.

20 Wolf. p. 383. 655. 217. Maimon. Ep. ad. 21 Shalsheleth. p. 40. Wolf. p. 440. Juchasin, p. 131. Zemach D. ad. A. 4934.

Maimonides, who holds a distinguished place among the learned of this age, was born at Cordova, in Spain, in the year 1131. Among his preceptors was Averroës the Arabian. Through his superior genius and industry, he acquired a degree of learning which excited the jealousy and envy of his countrymen: perhaps, too, his connexion with Averroes might lead him to adopt obnoxious opinions. It has been asserted, that he became a convert to Mahometanism; but this wants proof. Whatever was the cause, which it is not now easy to discover, it is certain that Maimonides found his residence in Spain troublesome and hazardous, and removed into Egypt, where he settled at Cairo. Here his learning and talents engaged the notice of the Sultan of Egypt, Malich El Hadul, who employed him as his physician. Maimonides instituted a school at Alexandria, where he had many followers, who were, however, soon afterwards dispersed by persecution. Some say, that he died in Egypt, in the year 1201; others, that he died in Palestine, in the year 1205.°3

24

This learned Jew was not only master of many eastern languages, but, which was a rare accomplishment at that time, was well acquainted with the Greek tongue; in which he seems to have read the works of Plato, Aristotle, Themistius, Galen, and others. He confesses, that he had been much conversant with the writings of philosophers. As a physician he possessed high reputation; he was a good logician, and had a competent knowledge of mathematics. In Talmudic learning he excelled all his contemporaries. Besides many other works, he wrote a treatise "On Idolatry;" another, "On the Theology of the Gentiles;" and a third, “ On Allegorical Language;” which discovered great learning, but leaned towards Gentile philosophy more than his countrymen approved. A singular proof of his fondness for the Aristotelian doctrines, and, at the same time, a curious specimen of the absurd method of allegorizing, adopted even by the more intelligent among the Jews, we meet with in his explanation of the sapphire stone, which Moses saw under the feet of the God of Israel, the

23 Juchasin. p. 131. Basnage, l. ix. c. 10. 24 Ed. Basil. 1629.

Fabr. Bib. Gr. v. xiii. p. 296. Shalsheleth. p. 43.
Wolf. p. 865.

Epist. Venet. 1545.

whiteness of which he understood to denote the 'YA рn, first matter, of Aristotle.25 *

CHAP. III.

OF THE JEWISH PHILOSOPHY, EXOTERIC AND
CABBALISTIC.

THE philosophy of the Jews, which is inseparably con

nected with their theology, differed essentially from that of the Greeks, in the sources from which it was derived. Whilst the several Grecian sects of philosophers applied the powers of the human understanding to every subject of speculation, and attempted to establish all their tenets upon the ground of rational argument, the Jews professed to derive all their knowledge from Divine Revelation,' either in the Mosaic law, or in the traditions and decisions of their Fathers. Although the Jewish doctors distinguished between such doctrines as may be known from the principles of reason, and such as rest upon traditional, oral, or written, they in fact made little use of this distinction, and were satisfied with nothing which could not be supported. by authority. Even in maintaining those doctrines which might have been established by rational arguments, they relied more upon tradition than reason; and, by the help of allegorical interpretations, found in their sacred books whatever tenets they had either borrowed from others, or framed in their own imaginations. In the writings of men, who thus forsook the pure doctrine of revelation in search of fictions, and who, nevertheless, had no confidence in the natural powers of the human mind, it is in vain to expect much that can deserve the name of philosophy.

Conf. Budd. Intr. Hist. Heb. p. 167. Basnage, l. ix. p. 277. Vidend. passim. Zeltner. Diss. de Beruria. Altdorf. 1714. R. Moses Mikkozi lib. Præcept. Maimonid. Præf. ad Seder Saraim. Buxtorf. Recensio Op. Talm. Z. Grapius in Idea Talmud. Hier. Lips. 1695. Jo. A. Lent. Mod. Theol. Jud. Wagenseil ad Sota. Morini Exerc. Bibl. Leo African. Maimon. in Præf. Jad. Hassakah. Dior. in Cabbala. Zachuth in Juchasin. Gedalia in Shalsheleth Hakkabala Gantz. Zemach David Otthon. Hist. Mishnic. Wolf. Basnage, Reland, Lightfoot, Hottinger, Buddæus, Prideaux, &c.

[BOOK IV. Two methods of instruction were in use among the Jews; the one, public or exoteric; the other, secret or esoteric. The exoteric doctrine was that which was openly taught the people from the law of Moses and the traditions of the Fathers. The esoteric was that which treated of the mysteries of the Divine Nature, and other sublime subjects, and was known by the name of the Cabbala. The latter was, after the manner of the Pythagorean and Egyptian mysteries, taught only to certain persons, who were bound, under the most solemn anathema, not to divulge it.

The exoteric doctrine comprehended the popular articles of faith and rules of manners. These were not reduced into a systematic form till the middle of the tenth century; when the Rabbi Saadias Gaon, the master of the school at Sora, wrote a book in the Arabic language concerning the Faith, which Jehudah Tibbon translated into Hebrew. The articles of the Jewish faith were afterwards reduced by Maimonides to thirteen, which were generally received, though not without some opposition, in the Jewish church.2 Ethics were so little studied among the Jews, that, in their whole compilation called the Talmud, there is only one treatise on moral subjects. After the Peripatetic doctrine was received among them, some attention was paid to Aristotle's doctrine of morals; and, among the Jews, in the western world, we find, from the eleventh century, many writers, who treat upon the practical rules of life and manners, not however without a mixture of allegory and mysticism. Their books of morals chiefly consisted in a minute enumeration of duties. From the law of Moses were deduced six hundred and thirteen precepts, which were divided into two classes, affirmative and negative, two hundred and forty-eight in the former, and three hundred and sixty-five in the latter. These may be seen in the Jewish catechism, and in a Talmudic treatise, entitled Maccoth. It may serve to give the reader some idea of the low state of moral philosophy among the Jews in the Middle Age, to add, that of the two hundred and fortyeight affirmative precepts, only three were considered as

Budd. Intr. Hist. Ph. Heb. § 32.

Wolf. p. 867. Basnage, 1. iv. c. i. § 1. Schudt. Mem. J. p. ii. 4. vi.c. 27. § 18. Maimon. Ed. Vorstii. Amst. 1638. 3 Edit. Cantab. 1597.

obligatory upon women; and that, in order to obtain salvation, it was judged sufficient to fulfil any one single law in the hour of death; the observance of the rest being deemed necessary, only to increase the felicity of the future life. What a wretched depravity of sentiment and manners must have prevailed before such corrupt maxims could have obtained credit! It is impossible to collect from these writings any thing like a consistent series of moral doctrine. Of their popular theoretic tenets the following is a brief summary.

The Creator is One; there is none like him, and he alone has been, is, and will be. The existence of God is nothing but his essence and truth. The foundation of wisdom is to know, that God is the first being, and that he gives existence to all others. The essence of God cannot be comprehended by the human understanding; he can only be known by his attributes and name. In the name of Jehovah there is great power; and it is unlawful for any man to utter it, except the priest when he pronounces the holy benediction. The nature of God is incorporeal and spiritual; simple essence, without composition or accident; intellect, in perpetual act. His duration, both past and future, is infinite. God is not so properly said to be in place, as to be himself place, for all space is full of his glory. God is the omniscient and sovereign Lord of the universe; he foresees and ordains all things; but all evil is to be ascribed to the free will of man.

The world was created from nothing, had a beginning, and will have an end. All human souls were created at the beginning of the world, and existed in a happy state before they were sent down into the body: besides these, there are other created spirits, good and bad, of various names and classes. The bad angels are corporeal, their bodies consisting of the two elements of air and fire. The heavens are animated; and the stars are rational beings, endued with the powers of intelligence and volition; they have an influence upon human affairs, and even upon inferior animals, plants, and minerals, and communicate to men the knowledge of future events. Different regions of

Wolf. ib. p. 744. 221. 571. Jo. A. Lent. Lev. Mutinens de Carim. Jud. p. v. c. 4. VOL. 11.

2 B

Theol. Jud. c. xiv. § 3.