recommended him to the favour of the emperor Adrian, whoonducted him rapidly through the several stages of advancement, and who appointed Antoninus Pius his successor, upon the express condition, that Aurelius should be next in succession. Aurelius, far from being elated with these honours, upon his removal from his father's house to the emperor's, discovered great reluctance, and expressed strong apprehensions of the difficulties and hazards of government. After his advancement, he continued to treat his parents with the same respect, and to pay the same regard to their advice and authority as he had before always done. Nor did he suffer the engagements or avocations of his high station to divert him from the prosecution of his studies. Under the direction of Apollonius the Chalcidian, a Stoic philosopher, he studied philosophy as the foundation of policy, in order to qualify himself for the offices of government.92 During the life of Antoninus Pius, this emperor was greatly assisted in the affairs of government by Aurelius, who gave him every possible proof of probity, fidelity and affection. After the death of the emperor, which happened in the year 161, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus was, with the unanimous concurrence of the senate and people, advanced to the purple; and through the whole course of his reign he exercised his power under the direction of philosophy, and by his justice and clemency obtained the the general love ot his subjects.93 It is much to be lamented, that the mild and gentle spirit which this emperor unquestionably possessed, should, with respect to the Christians, have so far yielded to the importunity of inferior governors, and the tumultuous complaints of the people, that in several provinces, particularly in Gaul, he permitted them to be harassed by persecution. Perhaps, too, that false notion of the character and conduct of the Christians, which led him, with many others, to mistake their meritorious perseverance for culpable obstinacy, might have some share in producing those severities which were continued through his whole reign.9** * Capitol. c. 4, 5. Spart. in Hadr. c. 23. Dio, l. 71. 93 Capitol. c. 6, 7, 8. 94 Cónf. Amm. Marcell. I. xxiv. c. 4. Plin. Ep. 1. x. 97. De Scipso. 1. xi. § 3. * A Rescript, sent to Asia, prohibiting the persecution of the Christians, An invasion from the north having been, not without great difficulty, repelled, the emperor devoted his attention to the institution of useful laws, and the correction of civil and moral disorders. He never failed to give encouragement to such as distinguished themselves by their talents or merit, and to recommend the strictest morality by his own example. Whilst he was indefatigable in his attention to public affairs, he filled up every hour of leisure with philosophical studies. He suffered no material incident to pass, without writing such reflections upon it as might serve to establish in his mind the habit of virtuous fortitude. This practice produced those Meditations, which are deservedly reckoned among the most valuable remains of Stoic philosophy. Modesty and humanity, the fairest fruits of wisdom, were virtues peculiarly conspicuous in the character of this amiable prince. He despised flattery, refuted magnificent titles, and would suffer no temples or altars to be erected in honour of his name. When the rebellion in Syria was suppressed, and the head of Aulus Cassius, the leader of the revolt, was brought to Rome, the emperor received it with manifest tokens of regret, and ordered it to be buried.95 During an interval of peace, Aurelius took a journey to Athens. His route was marked with actions worthy of his character: and when he arrived at the ancient seat of the muses, he gave many welcome proofs of his love of learning and philosophy, by appointing public professors, liberally endowing the schools, conferring honours upon persons of distinguished merit, and performing other acts of imperial munificence,96 Returning to Rome, the emperor retired to Lavinium, with the design of devoting himself to his favourite studies. But, after a short interval, an irruption of Scythians, and other northern people, obliged him to lead his forces against them. From this expedition he returned victorious; but, in his way home, he was seized at Vienna with a has been ascribed to this emperor; but it is more probable that it was issued by his predecessor, Antoninus Pius.-See Lardner's Heathen Test. v. ii. p. 159. Capitol. c. 12. 23. 9 Capitol. c. 24-26. Philostr. 1. ii. c. 1. §.12. Dio, l. 71. mortal disease. Aurelius met his end with great firmness; expressing, in the true spirit of Stoicism, indifference to life, and contempt of death. He died in the sixtieth year of his age.97 Through his whole life this illustrious philosopher exhibited a shining example of Stoic equanimity. His countenance remained unaltered by any emotions of joy or sorrow; he never suffered himself to be elated by victory, or depressed by defeat. The severity, which the philosophical system he espoused was adapted to cherish, was, nevertheless, happily chastised by an innate benevolence of heart; and it is deservedly represented as his highest praise, that he was able, by the united influence of his precepts and example, to make bad citizens good, and the good still better.98 The philosophical Commentaries of Aurelius Antoninus, addressed to himself, Ilpos 'Eavrov, are Meditations, or Soliloquies, written for his own use.99 In order to form a true judgment of their meaning and spirit, they should be read, not as detached moral maxims, or reflections, but as connected with, and founded upon, the principles of Stoicism. Through inattention to this precaution, a meaning has sometimes been annexed to the words of Aurelius, which is inconsistent with his system, and which he, probably, never conceived. From the time of the Antonines to that of Alexander Severus, there were public schools of the Stoics in Athens and Alexandria: but their doctrine was corrupted by the prevalence of the Eclectic philosophy; and where we might expect to find disciples of Zeno, we only meet with followers of Ammonius.* "Capitol. c. 28, 29. Herodian. c. 4, 5. 96 Capit. I. c. Euseb. Hist. Eccl. 1. iv. c. 12. 99 Fabric. Bib. Gr. v. iv. p. 21-25. 1. Gravina. Orig. Lips. Manud. ad Brucker. Diss. de Thomas de Exust. * Vidend. Schilter Manud. Phil. Mor. ad Jurisp. c. Jur. Civ. I. i. § 44. Otto de Stoica Vet. Jur. Phil. Phil. Stoic. Diss. viii. xxiv. Werensels. de Met. Orat. Stoic. subdol. Christ. Imit. Temp. Helv. t. iii. § 2. Mund. Stoic. Diss. x. Menag. Hist. mulier. Phil. § 75. Voss. de Sect. c. 19. Jons. Scr. H. Ph. 1. i. c. 20. l. ii. c. 18. l. iii. c. 7. Cozzand. de Mag. Ant. Ph. 1. iii. c. 4. Heum. Act. Ph. v. iii. p. 110. v. i. p. 743. v. iii. p. 486. Gale Præf. ad Opusc. Mythol. Stoll. Hist. Ph. Mor. § 223. SECT. VIII. Of the State of the Epicurean Philosophy under the Roman Emperors. THE Epicurean sect, though degenerated from the simple manners of its founder, continued to flourish through a long course of years under the Roman emperors. This was owing in part to the freedom of manners which it permitted, and in part to the boldness with which it combated superstition; but principally to the strict union which subsisted among the members of this school, and the implicit deference, which they unanimously agreed to pay to the doctrines of their master. The succession of disciples in this sect was, as Laertius attests, uninterrupted, even when other schools began to fail. In many places the doctrine of Epicurus was publicly taught; and at Athens, the Epicurean school was endowed with a fixed stipend. There can be no doubt, therefore, that there must have been among the Epicureans eminent teachers of their system: and it may seem strange, that their names should not have been transmitted to posterity: but if the genius of this sect be considered, the difficulty will be obviated: for, such was the superstitious reverence, which the disciples of this school paid to the decisions of their master, that they neither ventured to add to his system, nor even to exercise their judgment in writing commentaries upon 230. 234. 237. Voss. de Hist. Gr. l. ii. c. 1. Senec. Vit. a Lipsio ap. Sen. Op. Vit. a Schotto. Gen. 1665. Fabr. Bib. Lat. t. iii. p. 496. De Servies Femmes des Douze Cæsars, p. ii. p. 294. Blount. Cens. Cel. Auth. p. 109. Malebranche de la Recherche, &c. P. i. l. ii. c. 4. Paschius de Var. Mod. Trad. Mor. c. iii. § 17. Diss. de Secta Elpistica Misc. Berol. t. ▼. Obs. ult. Morhoff. Polyh. Lit. t. i. l. vi. c. 2. Voss. de Hist. Gr. I. ii. c. 15. Epict. Vit. a Wolfio, Bellegardio, Boileavio, Fabr. Diss. de Eloq. Epict. in Fasciculo. Budd. de Mor. Phil. p. 103. Heins. de Phil. Stoic. Orat. p. 301. Scheffer de Phil. Ital. c. 10. Crellius de imprópus et àðópas Epict. Lips. 1716. Vit. Anton. a Daciero et a Wollio. Gataker. Præf. ed. Lond. 1730. Koeler. Diss. de Phil. Aur. Ant. Budd. in Phil. Mor. Anton. Amoen. Lit. t. viii. p. 443, 1 Seneca, Ep. 33. Themist. Orat. iv. Euseb. Prep. L. xiv. c. 5. 3 L. x. § 9. it; their whole concern was, to transmit the tenets and maxims of Epicurus uncorrupted to posterity. Hence, whatever celebrity any of the preceptors of this sect might have attained during their lives, their names soon fell into oblivion. Among the learned men of this period, there were, however, some who held the memory of Epicurus in high estimation, and in many particulars adopted his doctrine, and who, therefore, may not improperly be ranked in the class of Epicureans. Of these the principal are, Pliny the Elder, Celsus, Lucian, and Diogenes Laertius. Caius Plinius Secundus, called Pliny the Elder, to distinguish him from his nephew Caius Plinius Cæcilius, was born in the reign of Tiberius, about the year 23, and is commonly said to have been a native of Verona. In his youth, he took upon him the military character, and served in the army in the German war: but he soon turned the course of his ambition into the channel of learning, and by the indefatigable use of excellent talents acquired extensive and profound erudition. During the life of Nero, his dread of the savage spirit of that tyrant induced him to prosecute his studies in private. Towards the close of the reign of that emperor, he wrote a critical work on ambiguity of expression. Under the more favourable auspices of Vespasian, the superior abilities of Pliny had an opportunity of displaying themselves, not only in literary speculations, but in public affairs; for that emperor admitted him to his confidence, and employed him in important posts. In the midst of innumerable avocations, he prosecuted his studies with a degree of industry and perseverance scarcely to be paralleled. What his nephew related on this head must not be omitted. After enumerating his writings, he says: 3 "You will wonder how a man of business could find time to write so much, and often upon such difficult subjects. You will be still more surprised when you are informed, that for some time he engaged in the profession of an advocate; that he died in his fifty-sixth year; and that, from the time of his quitting the bar to his death, he was busily occupied in the execution of the highest posts, and 3 L. iii. ep. 5. |