and profligate; imperious towards their husbands, corrupted in themselves, and dangerous to the commonwealth. All such attempts must have a similar end. Working with Nature, men may perform much; but it is fortunate that as soon as they forsake her, their labours terminate in confusion.

10

To go on with our subject:-Throughout the vast empire of India the women, among the whole body of the people, are not secluded. In single and in married life they go abroad when and where they please. In public also they enjoy very great respect and reverence; and, as soon as years have fitted them for it, manage the domestic concerns of their husbands considerably at their own discretion; for they are enjoined by the Padma Purana, to be extremely careful of his property, which sufficiently shows it was left to their disposition. In the district of Kumaoon the sexes have exchanged employments, the men managing matters at home, while the ladies conduct whatever belongs to farming and agriculture. At Catmandoo, in Nepâl, the Queen has a female body-guard, who dress and ride on horseback like men, and are armed with swords." In the Birman empire the intercourse between the sexes is as free as in Europe; marriages are not contracted before the age of puberty, and polygamy is prohibited. 13 The beauty and gallantry of the women of the kingdom of Yangoma, a country governed by a Buddhist priesthood, are celebrated throughout the East." In Tibet, the women hold a very high and rather peculiar station in society: the elder brother of each family chooses a wife for himself and his brothers, who associates equally with all, however numerous, and is very greatly respected.11⁄2 This practice differs from that of the Nairs on the coast of Malabar, as among the latter a woman's affections are free to every man of the same caste as herself; but a custom similar to the above Tibetian arrangement is said to prevail among the bearer caste in the province of Orissa. 16

If we turn to the vast Archipelago of the Indian ocean, we shall find

Dubois on the Manners and Customs of India. The Abbé Dubois ingenuously confesses that the condition of women in India is very degraded; we have no doubt of that, but are speaking at present on the question of seclusion. His testimony on this point is decisive. "But degraded as the Hindoo women are," says he," in private life, it must be allowed that they receive the highest respect in public. They certainly do not pay them those flat and frivolous compliments which are used amongst us, and which are the disgrace of both sexes; but, on the other hand, they have no insults to dread. A woman may go wheresoever she pleases; she may walk in the most public places (must I except those where the Europeans abound?) and have nothing to fear from libertines, numerous as they are in the country. A man who should stop to gaze on a woman in the street, or elsewhere, would be universally hooted as an insolent and most low-bred fellow." Idem, p. 220. An erroneous notion also prevails about purchasing wives: let the same author correct it :-" Men of distinction do not appropriate to their common purposes the money acquired by giving their daughters in marriage, but lay it out in jewels, which they present to the lady on her wedding-day. These are her private property as long as she lives, and on no account can be disposed of by her husband. p. 137, 138. The reader may find the most minute and exact picture of Hindoo society in the Tales of Inatulla of Delhi, translated by Dow and Scott. 10 See a Translation of the Precepts relating to Marriage, in Dubois' work, p. 229.

11 Hamilton's Description of India, vol. ii. cited by Malte Brun. 12 Kirkpatrick's Mission to Nepaul.

13 Malte Brun's Geography, iii. 353.

14 Idem, vol. iii. p. 363.

15 Hamilton's Indian Gazetteer, p. 815,-This practice prevailed amongst our own ancestors, Cæsar, Comment,

16 Hamilton, Gaz, ubi sup.

17

that the condition of women is much the same as in Europe; few are secluded-none treated with contempt or disdain. "In general, they are not immured at all; and when they are secluded, it is but partially, and not with that jealous restraint which has become proverbial with respect to the manners of the East." They eat with the men, and associate with them on terms of the greatest equality. Among the people of Celebes, the most warlike nation of the whole Archipelago, they are altogether free, take an active part in all the business of life, are consulted by the men on all public affairs, and, although the monarchy is elective, are very frequently raised to the throne. To mark their equality they eat out of the same dish as their husbands, to whom etiquette, howhas assigned the right side. They share in the diversions of all public festivals, mingle in all political debates, and often assume, it is said, more than their due share in the deliberations.18

ever,

When Mr. Crawfurd was Resident at Java, the sovereign of the Bugis state, in Celebes, was a woman; 19 who, although married to the monarch of a neighbouring country, did not allow her husband to interfere with her government. The wife of a Macassar chief, was, at the same period, sovereign of Lipukasi, and had the reputation of being the best politician in Celebes. Mr. Crawford saw her in 1814; she was then about fifty years of age, and appeared full of intelligence and resolution.2o Not many days before, she had appeared among the troops of her country, animating them to battle. The same author remarks, that there was hardly any country in the Indian Archipelago, the sovereignty of which had not been at one time or another in the hands of women, and that their influence was observed to be greatest in the most turbulent states."1 The women of Java are more industrious than those of any other island of the Archipelago; but they are not driven to labour, by the men; it is undertaken voluntarily, because productive of distinction. Their minds, likewise, are commonly better cultivated than those of their husbands. Among the upper classes the females are more retired, but by no means immured; for whenever any British gentlemen became known to the native princes, they were always introduced to their harams to pay their respects to the princesses. At the English and Dutch parties given at Samarang, the wife and daughters of the Chief were present, and their manners were distinguished by delicacy and decorum. The Chief, it should be observed, was a most punctilious Mohammedan. Polygamy is not common in the Indian islands; and when it takes place, the first wife is the mistress of the family, the others being looked upon as her maids. For this reason, therefore, no man will give his daughter to a person of his own rank as a second wife; which is a great discouragement to polygamy." There is not much uniformity in the notions of the Indian islanders respecting female chastity; in Sumatra, the Malayan States, Borneo, the Peninsula, Bali, and Celebes, it is in high estima

17 Crawfurd, History of the Indian Archipelago, vol. i. p. 73. For the manners of these islanders, see also, Argensola, Histoire de la Conquête des Isles Moluques,' 2 tom. 12mo. Amst. 1707; and Recueil des Voyages qui ont servi à l'Etabliss. de la Comp. des Indes.' 12mo. 18 Crawfurd, vol. i. p. 74.

19 Argensola also describes the activity and courage of the Queen of one of the Molucca Islands. tom. i. 20 Crawfurd, p. 75.

21 Similar to what has already been quoted respecting the women of Sparta. 22 Crawfurd, vol. i. p. 77.

tion; while in Java and Ceylon, the women are remarkable for extreme libertinism and immodesty.23 On the Continent of India, marriage is a contract indissoluble by adultery, or any other crime; 24 but throughout the Archipelago divorces may be obtained by either sex, for the most trifling reasons, or even for no reasons at all. Mr. Crawfurd observes that it is no uncommon thing to see a woman who, before she is thirty, has divorced three or four husbands; and he witnessed one instance in which a woman was living with her twelfth spouse.25 Farther on, in the same volume, he mentions the example of a great man taking back his wife who had eloped from him and was notoriously guilty of adultery. Women do not contract marriage before the age of puberty; the men not until some years after. It is not considered safe, however, on account of the warm temperament of the women, to defer it on their side much beyond that period. Among the ladies of the Carnatic, also, according to the Abbé Dubois, it would be difficult to invent any other. safeguard than marriage, they are so soft in manners and so prone to seduction. "In Java, a woman is called an old maid at eighteen or twenty; and an old maid," says Mr. Crawfurd," is a suspected thing among the Javanese." He never saw a woman of two-and-twenty that was not or had not been married.27 Among the Hindoos, widows can on no account take a second husband.28 In the Archipelago, nothing is more frequent than the marriage of widows. On ordinary occasions, the youth of the contracting parties, and the state of morals, render it necessary to take the business of courtship out of the hands of the young people, and to transfer it to the relations."

26

31

Montesquieu was of opinion that the practice of secluding the women in Oriental countries, arose chiefly from the difficulty of discovering any other method of preserving their chastity; and he adduces the example of the native Indian women of Patana, and the Portuguese ladies of Goa. The Andromania of the Mogul women, described by Grose,31 with the picture which Crawfurd and Percival have given of the excessive vice and immodesty of those women, who enjoy the greatest freedom of intercourse with men, strengthen his position.considerably. We find that the women of Ceylon yield themselves up to the abominable lusts of their nearest relations, without its being considered any thing uncommon or disgraceful." But enough of this.

"Percival's Acc. of Ceylon. 24 Dubois on the Manners and Customs of India. 25 Hist. Ind. Arch. vol. i. p. 79.

26 Manners and Customs of India, p. 134. "They always try to bring it [marriage] about before they become really marriageable; and those who arrive at that period without finding a husband, seldom preserve their innocence long. Constant experience proves that Hindoo girls have neither sufficient firmness nor discretion to resist, for any length of time, the solicitations of a seducer.""Those who cannot find a husband fall into the state of concubinage with those who chuse to keep them, or secretly indulge in those enjoyments which, if known, would expose them to shame."-Id. ibid. "Quand elles out atteint l'age de treize ou quatorze ans, leurs parens sont obligés de les marier, s'ils ne veulent pas qu' elles mènent une vie débordée; car en cet âge-là les enfans savent déja se jetter dans le libertinage, ainsi que font parmi nous les filles débauchées."Premier Voyage des Hollandais aux Indes Orientales, p. 384.

History, &c. p. 86.

28 Dubois, Manners and Customs, &c.

99 See Crawfurd; and Marsden, Hist. of Sumatra.

20 Esprit des Loix, t. i. p. 374.

21 Voyage to the East Indies, p. 218.

3 Account of Ceylon, p. 195.

34

33

In the kingdom of Cambodia, the men always make their wives the companions of their debauchery, and exclude all other persons. In the same country, girls marry at the age of ten years. Dampier observed that the women of the Philippine islands were much fairer than the men; a proof they were less exposed. They were likewise so fond of strangers, that their husbands were obliged to take care they had no opportunity of conversing with them, except when they themselves were present. At Mindanao both men and women could speak Spanish; a proof of considerable intercourse. Every lady has a kind of privileged lover, called a comrade, who is expected, however, to be merely Platonic. The mistress is termed a pagally. They exchange presents; and when the lover visits at the lady's house, he is entertained, to a certain extent, gratis. When the Sultan goes on the water for pleasure, he seldom fails to take some of his wives with him. On the circumcision of the general's son, two dancing-girls were employed; but this did not prevent the Sultan's nieces from dancing also. They were very richly dressed, and wore small coronets on their heads. All the women of the island were fond of dancing." The Malays of Luconia prostitute their women to strangers for hire; as do also the inhabitants of Pegu, Siam, Cochin-China, Cambodia, Tonquin, and Guinea." The manners of China tend strongly to confine the women to their houses. They seldom stir abroad, and one would be apt to think, that, as some have conjectured, their keeping up their fondness for this fashion (swathing the feet) were a stratagem of the men's, to keep them from gadding and gossipping about, and confine them at home. They are kept constantly to their work, being fine needlewomen, and making many curious embroideries, and they make their own shoes; but if any stranger be desirous to bring any away for novelty's sake, he must be a great favourite to get a pair of shoes of them, though he give twice their value. The poorer sort of women trudge about the streets, and to the market, without shoes or stockings; and these cannot afford to have little feet, being to get their living with them." It is very common, also, to see women sitting in the streets, and selling tea hot and ready made; they call it chau, and even the poorest people sip it."9

9938

37

nor

To return towards Western Asia:-The practice of confining women to the haram, did not prevail amongst the ancient Arabians," among the Mohammedans, until some time after the death of their Prophet. It is expressly prohibited in the Koran; and Mohammed himself once observed to one of his followers, who was about to marry," See the girl yourself, that you may discover whether you would be satisfied to live with her." In all ages, however, it was customary with the Arabian women to wear veils, both to preserve their beauty and pro39 Description du Royaume de Camboge, par un Chinois du xiijeme siècle, Traduit par M. Abel-Rémusat, dans les Annales des Voyages.

34 Dampier's Voyages, vol. i. p. 327.

35 Idem, p. 361.

36 Idem, p. 395. See also Marsden's Translation of Marco Polo; and Les Annales des Voyages, in the account of the above Translation.

97 It is observable that in all other oriental nations, where women are secluded, no feeling of interest or gain is apparent. This is a curious distinction.

28 Dampier's Voyages, vol. i. p. 408.

99 Idem, p. 409.

40 See the Tarikh Tebry, translated by Major Price, 11 Castellan, Mœurs des Ottomans, t, v, p. 198,

tect them from the gaze of men. We find in the Bible a correct picture of the manners of Asiatic women in the primitive ages, and some instances of the evils arising from the neglect of the veil. Sarah was nearly taken from her husband, because she was observed to be "fair to look upon;" and Joseph's adventure with the wife of Potiphar,2 corroborates the position that southern temperaments are violently driven towards laciviousness. Travellers observe that, among the Bedouins, women still go veiled, to draw water from the wells, as in the days of Abraham.43 They enjoy the highest respect and deference in society, and sometimes receive the revenues of their husband's estates, which they account for to him: D'Arvieux observes that this was done by the Emir of Mount Carmel's wives." In general, the women employ themselves in spinning wool for their mantles, or goat's hair for their tents; in cooking, shearing their sheep, taking care of the barbs, and saddling and bridling them. Some few attend on the Emir's wife, sing to her, or tell amusing tales for her diversion; and thus pass their lives. The details of Arab courtship are amusing enough: the youth who is smitten with the figure or voice of a girl, trusts to his imagination for the beauty of her face, sometimes, however, seeking the corroboration of his eyes, by concealing himself in a tent, where he expects the virgins of the camp may pass, or in thickets near the fountains where they go to draw water; for there the girls throw off their veils to laugh and chat with their companions. If the maid has a penchant for the youth who desires her hand, she contrives opportunities to show him her face, by dropping the corner of her veil (which they hold with their teeth,) as she passes him in the camp, and then hastily re-adjusting it, as if her beauty had been discovered by accident. Sometimes the lover conceals himself in the tent of some relation, or female acquaintance, who may favour his passion; thither the virgin and her mother, under some pretence or other, are desired to come, and the youth has an opportunity of observing her at leisure. If she answers his expectation, he desires his father, or some other relation, to demand her in marriage, and nothing remains but to settle the nuptial present. This consists of camels, sheep, or horses, and is frequently very considerable. Nothing short of this degree of seclusion could preserve the modesty

46

According to D'Herbelot, articles Zoleika and Jousuf, the Orientals have celebrated their loves, almost as much as those of Mejnoun and Leilah.

43 Volney, t. i. p. 371, and Bois-Aymé, Mémoire sur les Arabes, &c. 4 Voyage dans la Palestine, &c. p. 157.

45 Idem, p. 187.

46 D'Arvieux, p. 221.-It is a curious trait in the Arab character that, upon the recovery of young women taken in war, and deflowered by the enemy, they still treat them as virgins in the camp; while she who is seduced by one of her own tribe is punished with death:-a just and necessary distinction. Another mark of Arab feeling and delicacy is the practice which prevails among them, of a father absenting himself from the tent, on the night in which his daughter is first introduced to her husband. It is considered indelicate for him to be in the same habitation when she ceases to be a maid; so, while all the other relations unite in the nuptial festivities, he steals out of the camp, and secludes himself in some nook of the wilderness, to ruminate in secret. Meanwhile the bridegroom and his friends arrive at the door of the maiden's tent, armed with clubs, where all her female relations and aquaintances stand armed also, to dispute their passage. Blood has been sometimes shed upon these occasions, but the women at length give way, and leave the virgin to her fate. See the very curious details of D'Årvieux and Bois-Aymé.