makes a constant progress, and diverges more and more from the rude and narrow maxims and notions of early times. This change relates primarily to theoretical morals. We shall presently proceed to inquire, upon what advancement in the practice of morality depends. 3. The moral opinions in which all men are and always have been agreed, relate to acts of which the immediate consequences in pleasure or pain to others, are very obvious; and as to the remote consequences of which, no question has yet been raised. It is only necessary, however, to raise such a question, and to advance some probable reasons for supposing that the consequences of the second and third orders which result from any action, are contrary to those of the first order, to throw doubt upon the best settled moral precepts. For example, alms-giving, down to a very recent period, had been long and very extensively regarded as a meritorious act, however indiscriminately and thoughtlessly those alms might be bestowed. Of late, however, forceable reasons have been adduced to prove that indiscrimi-, nate alms-giving is attended by great evils of the second and third orders; whence has resulted a decided change of opinion, as to the moral character of indiscriminate charity.* * An American Professor of Moral Philosophy - President Wayland - recently published a Treatise, upon the “ Limitations of Moral Responsibility," the real object of which is, to show, that men are not under any moral obligation to regard consequences of the second and third order. The argument proceeds wholly upon mystical grounds; and affords a curious illustration of the sort of aid afforded by mysticism to morality. 4. What are called the decisions of common sense upon questions of morals, are like the decisions of common sense upon other matters. They are founded upon the first and most obvious appearances of things. They are often right, and often wrong. They require the same scientific revision as the decisions of common sense upon all other topics. Such a revision, as in other cases, will serve to confirm a part of these decisions; but it will show that another part of them, and no inconsiderable part, originate in that constitution of human nature, which, in so many cases, renders error the necessary predecessor of truth. PART THIRD. CONNEXION BETWEEN HAPPINESS AND VIRTUE, AND TRUE MEANS OF PROMOTING BOTH. CHAPTER I. CONNEXION BETWEEN HAPPINESS AND VIRTUE. 1. As respects the influence of virtue upon happiness, two questions may be asked; First. Does the increase of virtue in general, tend to increase the happiness of the human race? Second. Does the increase of virtue in any given individual tend to increase the happiness of that individual? Or these two questions may be put in another form, thus ; First. Does the increase of virtue in a community tend to increase the happiness of that community? Second. Are individuals happy in proportion as they are virtuous ? 2. In order to answer these two questions, it is to be considered, that the happiness or misery of individuals, and of course the happiness or misery of communities and of the human race, - which are only collections of individuals, is dependent upon four different sets of circumstances; 1st. The general constitution of nature, including the general constitution of human nature; 2d. The peculiar constitution of each individual, that is to say, his peculiar degree of sensibility to different pleasures and pains; 3d. The acts of the individual himself; and, 4th. The acts of others. 3. This analysis and enumeration of the causes of human happiness and misery, enable us easily to give an answer to the first of the questions above put, the question whether the increase of virtue tends to increase the sum total of human happiness. One of the four elements, which together produce the happiness or misery of men, is, the acts of others. Now, just in proportion as virtue exercises an influence over the conduct of men, just in that same proportion does the happiness of others become an object to be aimed at; and just in that proportion will men be likely to contribute to the happiness of each other. On the other hand, so far as virtue ceases to exercise an influence over the conduct of men, in that same degree is the disposition to consult the happiness of others diminished; and just in the same proportion are men likely to become causes of suffering to each other. 4. Indeed, the tendency of the increase of virtue to increase the sum total of human happiness, is so very obvious to the most cursory observation, that legislators and philosophers, in all ages, have exerted their utmost ingenuity to lure men into the paths of virtue; and to this end, and in order to enlist the selfish sentiments into the cause of humanity, they have, almost with one voice, peremptorily answered the second of the above questions also in the affirmative; and have proclaimed, far and wide, that the increase of virtue, in each individual, tends directly to increase his individual happiness; in other words, that individuals are happy in proportion to their virtue. -- 5. This proposition, however, notwithstanding the numbers who have concurred in it, including many who hardly concur in any thing else, is as palpably false, as the proposition already disposed of, respecting the tendency of virtue to increase the happiness of communities, is obviously true; and the general perception of its falsity, although few are able, through the cloud of authority in its favor, clearly to detect that falsity, and plainly to point it out, together with the singular unanimity of priests, philosophers, and rulers, in preaching it to others, while they neglect to act upon it themselves, has led to a suspicion, very generally diffused, that moralists, and especially moralists by profession, are, after all, but a set of artful persons who seek to entrap men into a course of conduct, of which all the benefits result to others, and to the moralists themselves, as a part of those others, and of which all the burden falls upon the actors. Thus, while all men praise virtue, and are very anxious to induce others to practise it, there is widely diffused, even among professed moralists themselves, a secret doubt, whether morality, after all, be not a cunning contrivance to make the many contribute to the service of the few. 6. That morality is founded upon the nature of |