the act is closed. This rule is, very generally, observed by the French tragedians; but the English writers, both of comedy and tragedy, seldom pay any regard to it. Their personages succeed one another upon the stage with so little connexion; the union of their scenes is so much broken, that, with equal propriety, their plays might be divided into ten or twelve acts, as well as into five. The second rule, which the English writers also observe little better than the former, is, that no person shall come upon the stage, or leave it, without a reason appearing to us, both for the one and the other. Nothing is more awkward, and contrary to art, than for an actor to cnter, without our seeing any cause for his appearing in that scene, except that it was for the poet's purpose he should enter precisely at such a moment; or for an actor to go away without any reason for his retiring, farther than that the poet had no more speeches to put into his mouth. This is managing the personæ dramatis exactly like so many puppets, who are moved by wires, to answer the call of the master of the show. Whereas the perfection of dramatic writing requires that every thing should be conducted in imitation, as near as possible, of some real transaction; where we are let into the secret of all that is passing, where we behold persons before us always busy; see them coming and going; and know perfectly whence they come, and whither they go, and about what they are employed.

All that I have hitherto said, relates to the unity of the dramatic action. In order to render the unity of action more complete, critics have added the other two unities of time and place. The strict observance of these is more difficult, and, perhaps, not so necessary. The unity of place requires, that the scene should never be shifted; but that the action of the play should be continued to the end, in the same place where it is supposed to begin. The unity of time, strictly taken, requires, that the time of the action be no longer than the time that is allowed for the representation of the play; though Aristotle seems to have given the poet a little more liberty, and permitted the action to comprehend the whole time of one day.

The intention of both these rules is, to overcharge, as little as possible, the imagination of the spectators with improbable circumstances in the acting of the play, and to bring the imitation more close to reality. We must observe, that the nature of dramatic exhibitions upon the Greek stage, subjected the ancient tragedians to a more strict observance of these unities than is necessary in modern theatres. I showed, that a Greek tragedy was one uninterrupted representation, from beginning to end. There was no division of acts; no pauses or interval between them; but the stage was continually full; occupied either by the actors or the chorus. Hence, no room was left for the imagination to go beyond the precise time and place of the representation; any more than is allowed during the continuance of one act, on the modern theatre.

But he practice of suspending the spectacle totally for some little time between the acts, has made a great and material change;

gives more latitude to the imagination, and renders the ancient strict confinement to time and place less necessary. While the acting of the play is interrupted, the spectator can, without any great or violent effort, suppose a few hours to pass between every act; or can suppose himself moved from one apartment of a palace, or one part of a city, to another: and, therefore, too strict an observance of these unities ought not to be preferred to higher beauties of execution, nor to the introduction of more pathetic situations. which sometimes cannot be accomplished in any other way, than by the transgression of these rules.

On the ancient stage, we plainly see the poets struggling with many an inconvenience, in order to preserve those unities which were then so necessary. As the scene could never be shifted, they were obliged to make it always lie in some court of a palace, or some public area, to which all the persons concerned in the action might have equal access. This led to frequent improbabilities, by representing things as transacted there, which naturally ought to have been transacted before few witnesses, and in private apartments. The like improbabilities arose, from limiting themselves so much in point of time. Incidents were unnaturally crowded; and it is easy to point out several instances in the Greek tragedies, where events are supposed to pass during a song of the chorus, which must necessarily have employed many hours.

But though it seems necessary to set modern poets free from a strict observance of these dramatic unities, yet we must remember there are certain bounds to this liberty. Frequent and wild changes of time and place; hurrying the spectator from one distant city, or country, to another; or making several days or weeks to pass during the course of the representation, are liberties which shock the imagination, which give to the performance a romantic and unnatural appearance, and, therefore, cannot be allowed in any dramatic writer who aspires to correctness. In particular, we must remember, that it is only between the acts, that any liberty can be given for going beyond the unities of time and place. During the course of each act, they ought to be strictly observed; that is, during each act the scene should continue the same, and no more time should be supposed to pass, than is employed in the representation of that act. This is a rule which the French tragedians regularly observe. To violate this rule, as is too often done by the English; to change the place, and shift the scene in the midst of one act, shows great incorrectness, and destroys the whole intention of the division of a play into acts. Mr. Addison's Cato is remarkable beyond most English tragedies, for regularity of conduct. The author has limited himself, in time, to a single day; and in place, has maintained the most rigorous. unity. The scene is never changed; and the whole action passes in the hall of Cato's house, at Utica.

In general, the nearer poet can bring the dramatic representation, in all its circumstances, to an imitation of nature and real life, the impression which he makes on us will always be the more perfect.

Probability, as I observed at the beginning of the lecture, is highly essential to the conduct of the tragic action, and we are always hurt by the want of it. It is this that makes the observance of the dramatic unities to be of consequence, as far as they can be observed without sacrificing more material beauties. It is not, as has been sometimes said, that by the preservation of the unities of time and place, spectators are deceived into a belief of the reality of the objects which are set before them on the stage; and that, when those unities are violated, the charm is broken, and they discover the whole to be a fiction. No such deception as this can ever be accomplished. No one ever imagines himself to be at Athens, or Rome, when a Greek or Roman subject is presented on the stage. He knows the whole to be an imitation only; but he requires that imitation to be conducted with skill and verisimilitude. His pleasure, the entertainment which he expects, the interest which he is to take in the story, all depend on its being so conducted. His imagination, therefore, seeks to aid the imitation, and to rest on the probability; and the poet, who shocks him by improbable circumstances, and by awkward, unskilful imitation, deprives him of his pleasure, and leaves him hurt and displeased. This is the whole mystery of the theatrical illusion.

QUESTIONS.

How has dramatic poetry, among the entertainments of the theatre, rest? all civilized nations, been considered, What account does Aristotle give of and of what has it been judged worthy? the design of tragedy? Of this definiAccording to what, does it divide into tion, what is observed; and what may the two forms of comedy or tragedy? be considered a better one? When does Why has tragedy always been consi- an author accomplish all the moral dered a more dignified entertainment purposes of tragedy? In order to this than comedy? Upon what do they end, what is the first requisite; and why? respectively rest; and what are their What is the object of the epic poet, and respective instruments? Which, there- what follows? How is this illustrated? fore, shall be the object of our fullest From what does it appear that tragedy discussion? When is tragedy a noble demands a stricter imitation of the life idea of poetry? Of what is it a direct and actions of men? How, only, can imitation; and why? Hence, what fol- passion be raised? What, therefore, follows? What is it, or what ought it to lows? What does this principle exclude be? As tragedy is a high species of from tragedy? Why have ghosts maincomposition, so also, in its general strain tained their place? But what is to be and spirit, to what is it favourable? condemned; and why? Of this mixHow is this remark illustrated? What ture of machinery with the tragic acdoes every poet find? Why must he tion, what is observed? In order to sometimes represent the virtuous un- promote that impression of probability fortunate; but what will he always which is so necessary for the success of study to do? Though they may be de- tragedy, what have some critics rescribed as unprosperous, yet of what is quired? Of what tragedies were such there no instance? Even when bad men the subjects? But why cannot our ausucceed in their designs, what follows? thor hold this to be a matter of any What sentiments are most generally great consequence? In order to our beexcited by tragedy; and therefore, ing moved, what is not necessary? what must be acknowledged? Taking How is this position farther illustrated, tragedies complexly, of what is our and what instances are mentioned? author fully persuaded; and, there- Whether the subject be real or feigned, fore, upon what must the zeal which on what does most depend for rendersome pious men have shown against ing the incidents in a tragedy proba

ble? To regulate this conduct, what of what must the poet beware; and famous rule have critics laid down; why? What instance is given to illusand of them, what is observed? But in trate this remark; and of it, what is order to do this with more advantage, observed? What must unity of action what is first necessary? What was the also regulate? What foundation has state of tragedy, in its beginning? the division of every play into five What was its origin among the Greeks? acts? How does it appear to be purely How were these poems sung? In or- arbitrary? On the Greek stage, what der to throw some variety into this en- was totally unknown; and from what tertainment, what was thought proper? does this appear? What was the Greek Who made this innovation; of him, tragedy? How is this illustrated? what is observed; and what is said of What is remarked of the intervals at Eschylus? Of what these actors reci- which the chorus sung? As practice ted, what is remarked? What did this has now established a different plan, begin to give the drama, and by whom about what must the poet be careful? was it soon perfected? What is remark- What should the first act contain, and able; and how is this illustrated? how ought it to be managed? With From this account, what appears; and what does it make them acquainted? of it, what is further observed? To Of a striking introduction, what is obwhat question has this given rise? served? In the ruder times of the dra What must be admitted; and why?ma, how was the exposition of the sub. The chorus, at the same time, conveyed |ject made; and what instance is menwhat; and of what persons was it tioned? As such an introduction is excomposed? Of this company, what is tremely artificial, what follows? Durfurther remarked? What illustration ing which acts, should the plot graduof this remark is given? But, notwith-ally thicken? Here, what should be standing the advantages of the chorus, the poets great object; and why? yet what is observed; and why? How What should he therefore do? What is this remark fully illustrated? What remark follows; and of whom is this may be confidently asserted? What the great excellence? But of French use might still be made of the ancient tragedians, what is observed? What chorus? What would be the effect of should reign throughout a tragedy; this? After the view which we have and why? Of the fifth act, what is retaken of the rise of tragedy, &c. for marked? What is the first rule conexamining what, is our way cleared? cerning it; and hence, what are faulty? Of these three, which is the most im- What is the next rule; and why? In portant? When was its nature explain- the last place, what is observed; and ed; and in what does it consist? Why how is this illustrated? Of what were is this unity of subject still more essen- the ancients fond? When are such tial to tragedy, than it is to epic poetry? discoveries extremely striking; and What, therefore, follows; and why? what instances are given? What is What may there be? With what ought not essential to the catastrophe of a they to be connected; and for what tragedy; and why? In proof of this reason? Where have we a clear ex- remark, what instances are given ? ample of this defect? What is the sub- But in general, to what does the spirit ject of this tragedy; and what is said of English tragedy lean? What quesof Cato himself? But what are mere tion naturally occurs here; and why? episodes; why did the author intro- Of this question, what is observed? duce them; and what follows? What is the most plain and satisfactoOf what must we take care? What ry account of the matter? By what do unity and simplicity respectively are we, in some measure, relieved; and import in dramatic composition? Of by what are we gratified? What rethe Greek tragedies, what is here ob-mark follows? At the same time, what served? How is this remark illustrated must be observed? Having spoken of from the Edipus and Philoctetes of the conduct of the subject throughout Sophocles? Yet of these simple sub-the acts, of what is it necessary also to jects, what is observed? Among the take notice? What forms a new scene; moderns, what has been admitted into and of these scenes, what is observed? tragedy; and what has it become? For this purpose, what is the first rule What remark follows? Why is this va- to be observed? Of this, what is reriety an improvement in tragedy? But marked; and why? By whom is this

ANALYSIS.

Dramatic poetry.

1. Tragedy.

rule observed; and by whom is it not? these unities, yet what must we reHow does this appear? What is the member; and why? In particular, second rule; and why? This is mana- what must we remember? How is this ging the personæ dramatis in what illustrated; and what instances of an manner? Whereas, what does the per- adherence to this rule are mentioned? fection of dramatic writing require? When will the impression in general, All that has hitherto been said, relates be the more perfect? How is this reto what; and in order to render it mark fully illustrated? more complete, what have critics added? Of the strict observance of these, what is observed? What do they respectively require? What is the intention of both these rules? What must we observe? From what does this appear; and hence, for what was there no room left? What has been the effect of suspending the spectacle totally for some little time between the acts? While the acting of the play is interrupted, what can the spectator do; and therefore, what follows? On the ancient stage, what do we plainly see? As the scene could not be shifted, what was the consequence? To what did this lead? From what did the like improbabilities arise; and why? Though modern poets need not strictly to observe

A. The strain and spirit favourable to
virtue.

B. Aristotle's account of it.
c. The subject.
D. The origin.
E. The chorus.
Unity.

F.

a. Unity of action.

(a.) Unity and simplicity contrasted.

(b.) Directions for the conduct of
the acts.

(c.) The close considered.
(d.) Why tragic representations af-
fords gratification.

(e.) Directions for the scenes of the

acts.

b. Unity of time and place.

LECTURE XLVI.

TRAGEDY.-GREEK-FRENCH-ENGLISH TRAGEDY.

HAVING treated of the dramatic action in tragedy, I proceed next to treat of the characters most proper to be exhibited. It has been thought, by several critics, that the nature of tragedy requires the principal personages to be always of illustrious character, and of high, or princely rank; whose misfortunes and sufferings, it is said, take faster hold of the imagination, and impress the heart more forcibly, than similar events happening to persons in private life. But this is more specious than solid. It is refuted by facts. For the distresses of Desdemona, Monimia, and Belvidera, interest us as deeply as if they had been princesses or queens. The dignity of tragedy does, indeed, require that there should be nothing degrading or mean in the circumstances of the persons which it exhibits, but it requires nothing more. Their high rank may render the spectacle more splendid, and the subject seemingly of more importance, but conduces very little to its being interesting or pathetic; which depends entirely on the nature of the tale, on the art of the poet in conducting it, and on the sentiments to which it gives occasion. In every rank of life, the relations of father, husband, son, brother, lover, or friend, lay the foundation of those affecting situations, which make man's heart feel for man.