530

Abolition of the Patriarchate

[1700-4

ordering the construction of stone bridges at Moscow. Other ukases of the same period endeavoured to raise the tone of public morality, and inculcate self-respect. Thus the ukase of April, 1704, sternly prohibited compulsory marriage, which had been one of the chief scandals and miseries of old Muscovite life, released women from the captivity of the terem, and compelled their husbands and fathers to admit them to all social entertainments. The ukase of December 30, 1701, forbade falling on the knees before the Tsar, or doffing the hat before the Imperial Palace. "What difference is there between God and the Tsar, if equal honour be shown to both?" asked Peter on this occasion.

In 1700 died the Patriarch Adrian. His administration had, latterly, been so negligent, that his enemies accused him of sleeping away his time, and eating up his revenues. Adrian's dilapidations could be repaired only by a very energetic successor, but where was a Patriarch in sympathy with the reforming Tsar to be found? An energetic but unfriendly Patriarch would be the natural leader of a whole army of malcontents; he would be a most dangerous rival, a second Nikon. In January, 1701, therefore, the administration of the temporalities of the patriarchate was entrusted to a layman, Count Ivan Musin-Pushkin. His appointment was the first step towards a rigid inquisition into the government and revenues of the Russian monasteries, which resulted in the ukase of December, 1701, depriving the religious houses of the control of their estates, and making the monks the salaried officials of the State. The care of the spiritualities was confided to a Little Russian prelate, Stephen Yavorsky, with the title of Exarch of the Most Holy Patriarchal See, whom Peter now promoted to the archiepiscopal see of Riazan. The ignorant Great Russian clergy detested this more enlightened Little Russian interloper, and such pressure was brought to bear upon him that he hid himself in a monastery on the day appointed for his consecration, declaring that he could not accept his new dignity so long as his episcopal brethren accused him of simony, heresy and wine-bibbing. But Peter, well aware that the same people who repudiated Yavorsky called him (the Tsar) Antichrist, overruled Yavorsky's objections, and insisted on the consecration of a man whom he already rightly regarded as a fellow-worker.

All this time, the popular disaffection against the Tsar was steadily growing. As the War proceeded, as the burden of taxation became more grievous, and the number of the recruits ever larger, the murmuring of every class of the population grew louder and louder. "What manner of Tsar is this?" they said, "who takes us all for soldiers, and gives us no rest, and makes our wives and children widows and orphans? If he lives much longer he will ruin the whole land. He is a miroyed, he eats up the whole world." The people explained to their own satisfaction Peter's fondness for the Germans. He was the supposititious child of a stray German mother. He was the son of Lefort. The real Peter

1700-8]

Unpopularity of the innovations

531

had remained abroad. In fact, Antichrist now sat on the Muscovite throne. On January 4, 1700, the Tsar still further irritated the reactionaries by issuing the ukase directing the general use of short Saxon or Magyar jackets, and French or German hose. This was followed, in 1701, by the ukase forbidding from henceforth, under heavy penalties, the wearing of the cumbrous old Muscovite garments. The European nations of the West had long since discarded the long, heavy, flowing garments customary among Asiatics. Muscovy still clung to Oriental costumes as well as to Oriental ideas; and, by substituting for these Western dress, Peter emphasised in the most public and striking manner his intention of completely Europeanising his still semi-Asiatic subjects. This latest innovation was bitterly resented as both indecent and irreligious. In Moscow itself open resistance was out of the question; but in July, 1705, a dangerous rebellion broke out at Astrakhan, under the leadership of Cossack officers and ex-Strieltzy. It was only suppressed on March 13, 1706, when Sheremeteff, with a regular army, took Astrakhan by assault, and three hundred and sixty-five of the rebels were sent to Moscow to be broken on the wheel and decapitated.

After 1703 the reform movement necessarily proceeded more slowly. Peter, now constantly at war, had no time to give to domestic affairs. Yet never for a moment was the great work of progress suspended. In 1705, a ukase ordered the paving of Moscow. In 1706, the first modern hospital and medical training-school was built on the river Yanza, close to the German settlement at Moscow. In February, 1706, sanitary inspectors for Moscow were appointed, one for every ten houses. In 1707, a commission was appointed to devise the best means of dealing with the wholesale vagabondage and highway robbery which was the perennial curse of Muscovy. Peter had already done much to promote education; in 1707, he proceeded a step further by introducing into Russia the so-called "civil script." Hitherto, the old Cyrillic alphabet of fortyeight letters (still used in liturgical books) served for all Russian books. Peter deleted eight of the more cumbersome letters, simplified the remainder, and sent to Holland to have the new alphabet cast into type. It was brought back to Russia in 1707 by the typographer Anton Dernei, and, with some few later modifications, has been in use ever since. This simplification of the old alphabet was the first step towards the composition of the modern Russian written language, and therefore a reform of capital importance for civilisation. The first three books printed in the new script appeared at Moscow in 1708. Peter himself corrected the proofs and supervised the translations of the earlier books, which included a history of Russia down to his own times, issued by his express

command.

In 1708 Russia was divided into eight "governments" - Moscow, St Petersburg, Kieff, Smolensk, Archangel, Kazan, Azoff, and Siberia — in order that the country might be administered "in a more orderly

532

and tranquil manner.' The chief duty of the eight "Governors" was to see that the taxes were duly collected and transmitted to Moscow. On January 27, 1710, the first imperial budget was framed, when it was discovered that the annual revenue amounted to 3,016,000 roubles,1 or, taking a three years' average, 3,133,000 roubles, while the total expenditure came to 3,824,000. Thus expenditure exceeded revenue; but it is indubitable that the revenue would have been much larger but for the wholesale peculation which diminished the amount in transit. According to these estimates, the army cost 1,252,000, the navy 444,000, the diplomatic service 148,000, ordnance 84,000, and the garrisons 977,000 roubles.

gave

Absorbed as he was at this period by the Swedish and Turkish wars, which required his prolonged absence from Russia, Peter could not properly attend to the details of the domestic administration; but, as it could no longer be neglected, he instituted (by the ukase of February 22, 1711) a supreme governing board to which he the name of the "Administrative Senate.' It was to take the place of the Tsar during his absence, and to receive the implicit obedience due to himself. In a word, it was responsible for the whole burden of the administration. In order to facilitate the communications of the Senate with the governors and the fiscal functionaries, the office of Revisor General of Ukases was instituted in November, 1715. In 1717 Colleges or Departments of State were introduced. The idea of this adminis trative reform was first suggested to Peter by Leibniz. By the ukase of April 18, 1718, the "Colleges" were to be, in all points, exactly on the model of the Swedish "services"; so that Peter may be said to have learnt the science of government as well as the art of war from his Scandinavian rivals. As finally constituted, these new public offices were nine in number, and corresponded roughly with the Ministries of Western Europe. The Presidents of the Colleges were the principal Senators, all of whom were Russians. Most of the Vice-Presidents were foreigners. Peter invariably acted on the patriotic principle, not always followed by his immediate successors, that natives should always fill the highest posts, and that no alien should occupy any place that a Russian was equally capable of filling.

Efforts were also made to simplify local government as much as possible by subdivision of labour. Thus the various governments were split up into counties or districts (yezdui), each district having its own president assisted by a council of assessors, called Landräthe, elected by the gentry. In 1720 nadvorníue sudbui, or Courts of justice, were established in every town, and zemskie kontorui, or land-offices, where public accounts had to be regularly kept. In April, 1718, the old ulozhenie, or Code of laws, was remodelled according to the existing

1 A rouble was at that time the equivalent of nearly six shillings English.

1711-21]

Local government reforms

533

Swedish Code. By the ukase of June 15, 1718, insolvent debtors were compelled to work off their debts in public institutions, at the rate of a rouble a month, during which time they were to be fed at the expense of the State like convicts. A new law of succession was also introduced. The old practice of partitioning real estate was abolished, and the custom of primogeniture introduced. Henceforth, however, younger sons were to be allowed to buy landed estates after seven years' civil or ten years' military service. By the ukase of January 16, 1721, all officers in the army, whatever their origin, and their children after them, were declared to be noble, and entitled to patents of nobility. But education had previously been declared to be the indispensable qualification for advancement in every branch of the service. Thus the famous ukase of January 20, 1714, ordered professors from the mathematical schools to go the round of the provinces, and teach the children of the gentry arithmetic. No gentleman was henceforth to marry unless he had first been properly educated. The Guard was to serve as a training-school for inferior officers, while the sons of eminent persons were to be sent abroad to learn the science of war from famous generals.

Now, as formerly, the poverty of the Government was its chief impediment. There was no money to pay shipbuilders; yet ships had to be built, if the sea was to be held; and the command of the sea was necessary for the growth of commerce, the increase of which would, eventually, recoup the Government its expenses. But, if trade is to be promoted, traders must be encouraged and taken care of. Peter fully realised this. In November, 1711, half a dozen mercantile experts were transferred from Moscow to St Petersburg, to advise and assist the Government in concluding a new commercial treaty with England and Holland. A further effort to promote trade and industry is seen in the institution of the glavnuy magistrat, or chief magistracy (ukase of January 26, 1721)-a supreme local government board, subordinated to the Senate, consisting of the members of the St Petersburg civic authorities, half of whom were foreigners, the Tsar himself nominating the President. The "chief magistracy" was to appoint and superintend the magistrates in all the Russian towns, which were now divided into categories, according to wealth and population.

Great efforts were made by the regenerator to utilise Russia's latent resources. All landed proprietors were urged to search for and work the minerals on their estates, or the Government was to do it for them. In 1719 we find the silver mines of Nerchinsk, the iron mines of Tobolsk, and the copper mines of Kungura in full working order. At Tula and Kashirsk, about the same time, Alexis Naruishkin founded iron-works. Still more lucrative were the Lipski iron-works, which were bound by contract to turn out 15,000 small arms of all sorts, including 1000 pistols, per annum. The Olonets iron-works were important because

534

Development of the national resources

[1702-25

of their proximity to St Petersburg. No improvement was too small for the attention of the Tsar. Thus in May, 1725, he ordered that corn should, henceforth, be reaped with scythes instead of with sickles. The cloth manufactory of Moscow had engaged Peter's attention since 1705, and he at last committed it entirely to private firms, both to save expense and to accustom the Russians to commercial enterprises. The manufacture of sails was introduced into Russia in 1702, but languished till taken in hand by Prince Odoevsky in 1716. The leather trade had always been of the utmost importance. In 1716 alone 135,467 poods were sent to Archangel for export. Peter did much for the leather industry. Master-tanners were sent from Reval to Moscow to teach the people there how to tan the leather properly; and, after two years of such instruction, those of the Moscow tanners who persisted in the old way were liable to imprisonment and confiscation of property.

The needs of the Government compelled it to use forced labour, and recruit its artisans as well as its soldiers from the peasantry; and the period of reform was too close to the old Muscovite period of peasant serfdom to admit of any amelioration in the general condition of the serfs as regards the State. Yet the Government did what it could to protect the serfs from "their worst enemies, those drunken and disorderly masters who deteriorate their estates, laying all sorts of unbearable burdens on their peasants, and beating and tormenting them so that they run away from their grievous burdens, for which cause waste lands multiply and the arrears of taxation increase." All such masters were to be placed under restraint as lunatics; and their property was to be administered by their nearest relatives, or by the State. Moreover, by the ukase of April 21, 1721, proprietors were forbidden to sell their serfs separately; they were only to be sold in families.

But there was worse than poverty to contend with. Peter knew well that the emptiness of the Treasury was very largely due to peculation, that ancient and ineradicable vice of Russian society. The Russian official had come to regard the public service mainly as a source of personal income. Having no regular salary, he looked to his underlings "for nourishment," as the phrase went, and he took from them according to his needs, most liberally interpreted. Peter was not the man to leave the improvement of public morals to the gradual operation of time; and, as he always adopted the most energetic measures by preference, he was speedily committed to a struggle with the robbers of the Treasury, almost as bloody as his struggle with the rebellious Strieltzy. The vileness of some of the expedients which he found it necessary to adopt is eloquent of the extent and virulence of the evil with which he had to cope. By the ukase of August, 1713, informers were invited to report all cases of defalcation to the Tsar, and promised the rank and property of those whom they denounced. The ukase of December 24, 1714, further encouraged delators to come forward, and not be afraid of reporting