mentioned caufes, he was to be difmiffed with ignominy and fhame." Here it is to be obferved that fuch caufes of fuicide as were allowable in others, were punishable in the foldier; not that any account was taken of the inherent guilt of fuicide in this cafe, but because a foldier's desertion of his life was in a peculiar sense a desertion of his poft, and therefore to be punished.

This is the fubftance of Roman law refpecting fuicide, as it is to be found in the Code of Juftinian. It differs widely (as the judicious [L] Montefquieu has obferved) in its principle of punishment from that of the Greeks. For beside the cutting off the hand which perpetrated the fuicide, which was done in pure abhorrence of the crime itself, the law [M] of Plato commands, "that he who " has killed himself through mere sloth and the weakness of a timid mind shall "be punished." The Roman law acquits (that is, takes no notice of the matter) when it is done through any weakness of mind, and only punishes, when it is committed through a criminal remorse or despair; that is, when the fuicide flies from public condemnation. Plato's law was formed on the idea then prevalent in the Grecian ftates, that cowardice and faint-heartedness were the greatest of faults; and confequently what proceeded from them the greatest object of cenfure. The Romans on the contrary had loft all their fine feelings of honour and courage before ever they made express laws against suicide; and consequently when from various motives mentioned above it abounded among them and was often perpetrated to the detriment of avaritious Emperors and their minions-they confidered the act itself in an interested light, and punished it as an offence against the royal treasury: on which fingle principle (the cafe of foldiers excepted) all the refcripts of the Emperors respecting its punishment were founded,

It appears then upon the whole review of Roman fuicide, that this Roman death, as it has been called, was very little practised or encouraged in the pure ages of the republic;-that it sprang up on the introduction of Grecian philosophy, when the integrity of Roman manners and a reverence for religion were on the decline;-that being once established on principle, it was perpetually

[1] Spirit of Laws, Book XXIX. C. ix.

[M] Though this was not an established law,

only a law of Plato's imaginary republic. M m 2

called

called forth into practice under the firft Emperors by the peculiar circumstances of the times;-that it then became fo frequent, as to render it neceffary to check its alarming progress ;-that the latter Romans however had little or no idea of any crime in fuicide, but where it was detrimental to the interests of the state; that the corrupted part of the community, as entertaining Epicurean fentiments, could have no principle to restrain them, whenever prompted to its commiffion by the worst of selfish motives, or by a dereliction of their sensual pleasures; that the good and well-intentioned part, as being chiefly favourers of Stoicifm, embraced that particular branch of its doctrine with avidity, which, whenever public affairs were in a state of confufion or tyranny, and there was reafon to expect a diminution of their own dignity, enabled them not only to escape the impending evil without a diminution of credit, but even to gain fresh wreaths of fame in the bofom of fuicide. But let it not be forgotten, that before things took this turn, the fimplicity of ancient manners, the firmness of the Roman character, and all reverence for the Gods as the difpofers of human events were for the most part loft in Rome;-that in their ftead, a total neglect of religion, an opinion, that the Gods neither interfered in nor regarded human actions, had taken place on Epicurean principles; and on Stoical ones, a confused notion of a refolution of the foul and body of man into their original elements of earth, air, fire, and water; together with an idea, that the reward of virtue was placed in a conscious rectitude of mind, without respect to any future retribution. As the way then was open to the Epicurean to live exactly' as he pleased and to die how and when he pleased, fo was the Stoic also to be fo far master of his own life and actions, as to judge for himself of the propriety of living or dying; having little grounds of future hope or expectation of reward for any patient endurance of unmerited fufferings. What an encouragement then to every laudable exertion is the Chriftian philosopher's reliance on divine fupport under affliction and innocent fufferings! what a fpur to his activity in all honourable purfuit is his truft in future rewards for prefent difappointments! and how muft the union of fuch hopes and expectations provoke his zeal, ftrengthen his confidence and confirm his patience, whilft he is treading in the paths of integrity and virtue !

CHAP.

CHAP VIII.

Many of the most celebrated fuicides of antiquity may be exculpated on heathen principles.-Three claffes of ancient fuicides:-1. Selfish, merely to avoid pain, &c.— 2. Neceffary (as it was deemed) in vindication of their own honour :-3. Dignifed and difinterested for the good of others.-Degrees of cenfure due to the first class various; but of abfolute praise none.—Their best apology was incurable fickness; but this done away in modern times by the comforts of religion.-Examples of the fecond class-Reflections on the fame-Examples of the third clafs.-The best examples of antiquity no apology for modern fuicide.—Comparison between the motives to ancient and modern fuicide—to the great difcredit of the latter.

THO

'HOUGH it has been frequently afferted, that the different degrees of illumination between the ancients and moderns in refpect to their profpects of futurity were fufficient to palliate that felf-destruction in the former, which would be unpardonable in the latter; yet it may not be improper to appropriate this chapter to an inquiry into the motives, which influenced fome illuftrious perfonages of antiquity (whose cases have not hitherto been mentioned) to commit fuicide. From whence it will be eafy to determine, whether the race of modern suicides (even Christianity apart) can boast the pretenfions of many of the ancients? When a fearcher into the records of antiquity finds many celebrated names among the lift of felf murderers, he muft either be inclined to wifh the cafe were otherwise, or that he might be able to exculpate fuch from all blame and cenfure. But it will not be difficult in many cafes to do the latter; provided it be carefully remembered, that a judgment of the actions of the ancients (as far as regards themselves) is not to be grounded on "our own," but on "their" opportunities of information and knowledge: from whence it follows, that the fame action committed in different ages of the world will wear a very different afpect, as well as deferve very different degrees of approbation or cenfure.

Now the general herd of ancient fuicides, whofe examples are fo frequently (but improperly) adduced in extenuation of the crime in modern days, may be ranked

ranked under three heads. First; the "felfish"-merely to avoid pain and perfonal fufferings of body or mind: Second; the "neceffary" (as it was deemed)in vindication of their own honour: Third; the " dignified and difinterested," for the benefit of others. Various are the degrees of cenfure due to the first mentioned body of self-murderers; for as to praife, the best of this clafs can scarce be faid to deferve any. The most excufable caufe of all under this defcription seems to be an emaciated body; when a man labours under the tortures of an incurable diforder, and feems to live only to be a burden to himself [N] and his friends. This was thought a fufficient apology for the action in ancient days and can only be combated in modern ones by the force and energy of that true religion, which both points out the duty and the reward of implicit refignation. But as for the other two claffes of fuicides, their influencing caufes might be oftentimes disinterested and frequently meritorious. A few miscellaneous examples fhall first be produced of those ranking under the fecond divifion, who facrificed their lives to the prefervation of their honour (as it seemed in their eyes) and who killed themselves to avoid indignity and shame.

Numerous was this clafs, as it comprehends (among others) all thofe, who defpatched themselves after a defeat to avoid falling into the hands of an enemy. This was a most frequent cause of fuicide among the ancients, and configned many a character to fame, which would otherwife have fallen undistinguished in the mass of common [o] extinction. Whether it ought to be mentioned as an exertion of their fuperior heroism, or rather as a deviation from the more amiable softness of the fex, yet the fact is certain, that the females have often stood foremost and distinguished themselves in these fanguinary measures. At the taking of Carthage [P], when Afdrubal the Carthaginian general had meanly deserted his post and fled in private to Scipio, in hopes of procuring his perfonal fafety, the undaunted spirit of his wife was roused to a state of desperate indignation. Refolved to fupply in her own person the want of fpirit and refolution in her husband, fhe ordered the temple, in which she and a few troops

[N] Examples of this fort have been produced in different parts of this work; and as there is no variety in the cafes, there is no need of further mention of them here.

[o] Nolo virum facili redimit qui fanguine famam,

Hunc volo, laudari qui fine morte poteft.Martial.

[P] Rollin's Ancient Hiftory, who quotes Appian.

66

had taken fhelter, to be fet on fire. When this was done and fhe had arrayed herself in her richest robes, holding her two children in her hands the addreffed herfelf to Scipio (who had now furrounded the building with his troops) in the following terms. You, o Roman, are only acting according to the laws of open war: but may the Gods of Carthage and thofe in concert with them, punish that falfe wretch, who by fuch a base desertion has betrayed his country, his Gods, his wife, his children! Let him adorn thy gay triumph; "let him fuffer in the fight of all Rome thofe indignities and tortures he fo justly merits but let him first behold in "me", what "he" ought to have "done." She then grafping her children in her arms rushed with them into the thickest of the flames, and was followed by all the foldiers.

A most bloody scene of mixt murder and fuicide took place in the palace of Nicocles, king of Paphos in Cyprus on the approach [q] of king Ptolemy's officers, who came to difpoffefs him of his throne and life. The unhappy prince, finding himself deftitute of defence, became his own executioner. But neither the entreaties nor kind treatment of Ptolemy's agents could prevail on his queen Axithea to furvive her deceased lord. She first flew her daughters with her own hands, and after having prevailed on the princeffes (fifters of Nicocles) to defpatch themselves, Axithea plunged the dagger into her own bofom. Moved at the fight of fo much horror and bloodshed, the husbands of the deceased princeffes foon agreed to follow their fate; and having firft fet fire to the four corners of the palace fell on their own fwords. What an horrid fcene to be acted (and by women too!) in the favourite abode of the Cyprian divinity, where the loves and the graces alone should have fported and played [R]!

[Q] In the wars between Ptolemy and Antigonus.-See Diod. Sic. B. XX.

[R] Cyprus alfo furnishes another extraordinary inftance of fuicide (though not fo horrid and murderous as the former) in the person of that king Ptolemy, to whom Cato was fent by the Romans to demand his kingdom and his treafures. He knew refiftance would be vain; and ill-brooking either to descend from the fovereign dignity into a private station, or to deliver up those treasures, which were dearer to him than his life, he took the refolution of finking together with his riches to the bottom of the fea; and for this purpose went on fhip-board, meaning to have holes bored through the bottom of the ship, that all might fink together. But though he continued firm in his own refolution of dying, he could not find in his heart to murder (as it were) his beloved treafures; and therefore he returned on fhore again and quickly after drank poifon.(See Rollin's Anc. Hift.)

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