produces." That a wife man should be fo far indifferent to life or death, as to proceed in one uniform, steady course of virtue, even though his adherence to it should occafion his death, is what the Chriftian will cheerfully join with the Stoic in maintaining. But there is an effential difference between a "timid "dread of death, and a contempt of life;" between meeting death with refignation, when neceffarily impofed on us, and a voluntary defiance or challenge of its [B] approach. This contempt of life then, which is confounded with the fear of death and is fo frequently referred to by Seneca, as the ground-work of fuicide, has in fact nothing to do with the proof of its expediency or lawfulnefs, but only may go thus far " that if it should be lawful on any occafion to put an end to our own lives, then it may be proper to inculcate this high contempt of life, in order to inspire men with the refolution and courage necefsary to accomplish the deed." In this fenfe then Seneca might well ridicule the effeminacy and timidity of a man, who preferred his prayer [c] to the Gods, to afflict him in every fhape, fo life did but remain.”

"The

Seneca feems alfo to lay much ftrefs on the "facility" with which our death may be compaffed, as an argument for its actual accomplishment [D]. eternal law (says he) has done nothing better than this, that it has given us only one entrance into life, but a thousand ways of escaping out of it.-Ex"cellent is the condition of human life; fince nobody can be miserable but by his own fault. Does life pleafe you? live on. Does it not? go from "whence you came.-No vaft wound is neceffary; a mere puncture will secure your liberty. It is a bad thing (you fay) to be under a neceffity of living; "but there is no neceffity in the cafe. Why not? because many, short and “easy are the paths to deliver you from it. Thank the Gods, nobody can be

[B] Fortium virorum eft magis mortem contemnere quàm odiffe vitam.-Q. CURTIUS, L. V. 9.

[c] Debilem facito manu,

Debilem pede, coxâ;

Tuber adftrue gibberum;

Lubricos quate dentes;

Vita dum fupereft, bene eft.

Hanc mihi, vel acutâ

Si fedeam cruce, fuftine.SEN. Ep. ci.

[D] See Epiftles xii, and lxx. and De Irâ, Lib. III.

compelled

compelled to live; we fpurn at fuch a neceffity.-If the mind be fick, it is "its own fault; it may foon put an end to its mifery. Do you fee that pre

cipice, that river, that well? you will find liberty or freedom from mifery at "the bottom. Look on that tree;-liberty hangs on its branch; or do you "afk, which is the road to liberty? your heart, your throat and every vein in your body.—Every one ought to make his life approved by others, his death by himself. That kind of death is best, which pleases moft. If a man can "contrive to kill himself eafily and without much pain, he ought fo to do; "but if prevented from this, he must use more ingenious and painful methods. "There never can want contrivance to die, where there is inclination [E]. It is most unjust to live by theft, but to fteal an opportunity of dying is very becoming and beautiful."-Yet what is all this (and a great deal more of the fame kind scattered through his Epiftles) to the purpose? That a man 66 can" die when he pleases, who doubts? but is the consequence unavoidable, that therefore he "may" do fo?

tr

The above trifling propofitions (for it would be an indignity to the faculty of reasoning to call them arguments) have been adduced to show, how weakly a Philosopher, a Stoic, and a Seneca can argue in favour of suicide! and yet fuch is the frivolity of his general mode of defending and recommending the practice. Sometimes indeed he rifes towards the fhow of an argument, in which courfe he fhall now be followed. These are his fentiments of fuicide when connected with old age or infirmities. "We will give our opinion (fays he in Ep. lviii.) whether it "behoves us to loathe the extremity of age, and not to wait for, but anticipate

[E] Non deerit ad mortem ingenium, cui non defuerit animus.-Injuriofum cft rapto vivere, at contra pulcherrimum mori rapto (Ep. lxx.) This long epiftle is almoft wholly on the subject of fuicide; and he says, "It is not your great men alone, such as Cato, &c. who have adopted these no❝tions and who think thus nobly; but alfo men of the lowest rank (viliffimæ fortis) have been eager "to vindicate themselves to liberty; and being deprived of plain and easy methods of dying, have adopted "most painful and extraordinary ones. He is a great man who not only determines to die, but takes "pains to effect it, where he is furrounded with preventive difficulties." Seneca mentions a German gladiator, who for want of a better method (of which the vigilance of his keepers deprived him) thrust a dirty stick down his own throat, and thus choked himself. "How bravely (he adds) would fuch an (( one have used his sword on a like occafion, if he had worn one!" He mentions another poor flave, who being put into a cart in order to fight with wild beasts, contrived under the appearance of sleep to hang down his head in fuch a manner between the spokes of the wheel, that he was foon mangled and killed.

cr

our end by our own hand? It is a question, whether the extremity of life ought to be accounted the dregs of life, or the most refined and pure part of "it, provided only the understanding continues unimpaired, the fenfes entire, "and the body is not become more dead than alive? For the difference is great, "whether a man may be faid to prolong his life or his death. But if the body cannot discharge its offices, why fhould it not be incumbent on us to liberate "the labouring foul? Nay perhaps this ought to be done rather fooner, left "when the neceffity is actually arrived, there should not remain the opportunity or ability to do it: and when the chance is greater of living ill (that is, miferably to ourselves) than of dying quickly, it is folly not to fecure so ma"terial a point as the latter at the price of a little life. The lives of some few perfons [F] are protracted to a great length without harm or injury; but "the old age of many is at leaft totally inert and ufelefs. Why then should it "be judged cruel to fhorten the portion of life by putting an end to it? My "determination then is, that I will not relinquifh old age, whilst it preserves me "entire to myself-entire I mean in my better part. But when it once begins "to shatter my understanding and to impair my faculties, when it leaves me not "life, but breath only, I will leap in hafte out of the rotten and tottering ftructure. Neither will I fly from disease by a voluntary death, provided only "it be a curable difeafe and does not affect the mind: I will not lay violent "hands on myself through mere pain, fince thus to die is to be conquered. "But if I know this pain will be my perpetual companion, I will depart, not "for the pain's fake, but because it will hinder me from performing any duty "of life. He is weak and effeminate, who dies on account of pain; but he is a fool, who lives only to endure it."

66

Could one divest oneself for a moment of the grand doctrines of Christianity, viz. humility, patience and fubmiffion to divine appointment under the feverest fufferings, one could not have much to object to the general purport of this reafoning, as far as felf alone was concerned. But yet to fhow, how the wifeft philofopher, when unaffifted from above, is apt to contradict and confute himfelf, fome other paffages fhall be brought forward, in which Seneca himself will be found not only introducing, but practically yielding to the force of fome natural, rational and focial arguments of obligation to live even against his own [F] See the ferenity of Baffus Aufidius in his old age finely defcribed in Ep. xxx. 4

ftoical

toical principles of fuicide. Being emaciated (fays he, Ep. 1xxviii.) to an high degree by a fevere illness, I often rufhed on the thoughts of breaking through life; but was recalled by the old age of a moft indulgent father. For I confidered not how refolutely "I" could encounter death, but how "He" could bear up under my lofs. Wherefore I laid a command on myself

to live: for fometimes to live is to act bravely." Being thus determined. to live (if he could) for his father's fake, he goes on to mention the remedies that restored him to health,, when he had deemed his own cafe defperate enough to have justified his felf-murder. These were chiefly the confolations of philofophy and the affectionate attentions and converfation of his friends :-" these

..

(fays he) fpurred me on to assist myself and to endure every torment; were it "not for fuch comforts as thefe, it would be moft miferable, when you have "caft off all intention of a voluntary death, scarce to have the fpirit of life remaining in you." He then goes on in the fame Epiftle with fome general reflections which make much " against" his own principles of fuicide in extreme pain and illness. "Disease (fays he) has great torments, but intervals render "these more tolerable; and kind nature has fo formed us, as to make our pains "either tolerable or fhort." He afterwards enters into a difcuffion of the nature of pain and sickness, in which it would be tedious and unprofitable to follow him: but his conclufion is fo pointed in oppofition to suicide (though not so intended by himself) that it must not be paffed over:-" in the mean time ad"here to this opinion, hold it faft as between your teeth,-neither to yield to adversity nor to truft to profperity; but to have the fickleness of Fortune ever "before your eyes; and to believe, that whatever fhe can do, fhe will do. "What therefore you have taught yourself to expect [G], will be lighter to "bear." And And may it not be justly added on ftoical (as well as all other) principles, "that what is thus made lighter to bear can afford no ground for "fuicide?"

But we find another remarkable inftance in Seneca, where he yielded his ftoical principles to the dictates of natural affection and rational judgment; so that though he must certainly be ftyled the panegyrift of fuicide (from having

[G] Interim hoc tene, hoc morde: adverfis non fuccumbere, lætis non credere; omnem fortunæ licentiam in oculis habere, tanquam quicquid poteft facere, factura fit. Quicquid expectatum eft diu, levius accedit.—Ep. lxxviii.

B b

written

written fo much in its favour) yet he muft alfo be allowed to have ftrongly denied the influence of his own principles on his practice.

My wife Paulina (fays he, Ep. civ.) recommends it to me to take care of my health: and fince I "know that her life is wrapped up in mine, I begin to confult for myself. "Wherefore fince I cannot obtain of her to love me in a more [H]`exalted "manner, the obtains of me that I fhould love myself with more indulgence. "We must gratify these honest affections, and sometimes even though causes prefs us, we must retain the breath in our bodies, "even to our own tor"ment," for the fake of friends and relations, fince a good man ought [1] to "live, not only as long as may be pleasant to himself, but necessary to perform «his duties. He, who does not esteem his wife or his friend fo highly, as to "live for their fakes, but perfeveres in his dying intentions, is faftidious. For "let the mind lay this injunction on itself, that not only if it have formed the wish, but even taken the refolution of dying, to forego it for the advantage "and accommodation of friends; fince it is becoming a noble mind to return (as it were) into life for the fake of others, as many great men have done. "For this is a point of the greatest humanity, attentively to cherish your old CC age, when you know that it is pleasant, advantageous and defirable to any of your connexions. Such a circumftance has no finall fhare of comfort and "reward in it. For what is more pleasant than to be fo dear to a wife, as thereby to become dearer to oneself? Wherefore my Paulina is able, not only to infufe her own fears into me, but to [K] make me fear for myfelf."

[H] Meaning, fo as to look with more indifference on my health or ficknefs, as knowing that I can deliver myself from pain whenever I please.

[1] Bono viro vivendum eft, non quamdiu juvat, fed quamdiu oportet.(Ep. civ.)

[K] Paulina afterwards returned him the compliment of his former kindness in a way fuited to ftoical principles-by determining to die with him, when he was neceffitated to put an end to his own life by command of Nero. Their veins were opened precifely at the fame moment; but Paulina's life was preferved, whether through her own irrefolution, or by order of the emperor, is not very clear.(See the account at large in Tac. An. L. XV.)

Whatever Seneca might profefs to be in his principles of philofophy, he seems to have been but a mongrel Stoic in his practice; fince he fuffered the calls of natural affection,-the love of a father— of a wife-externals-to prevail fo much over him, and to draw him into compliances rather founded on humanity and tenderness than on the referved dignity and apathy of true ftoical wisdom. He was not fo rigid as Cato,

Seneca