BELGIUM. One of the most extensive and valuable products of B., no fewer than 400,000 persons being employed in its culture and preparation. Besides these, we may mention the straw-bonnet manufacture in the neighbourhood of Liege; the paper fabrics of the provinces Liege, Namur, and Brabant; the glassworks of Hainault, Namur, Val-St.-Lambert, and Brabant; the porcelain, &c., of Tournay, Brussels, Mons, and Ghent; and sugar-refineries at Antwerp, Bruges, Ostend, Ghent, &c. In 1857, the number of steam-engines employed in the several manufactures of B. was 3499. The natural wealth and industrial resources of B. have always been more or less modified by the political relations of the country. In the middle of the 13th c., B., with Bruges as its chief seat of manufactures, had surpassed all its neighbours in industry, and had established a flourishing commerce with the Italians. After the discovery of America, Antwerp took the place of Bruges, and was regarded as a northern Venice. But the unhappy period of Spanish oppression and the war in the Netherlands deeply depressed Belgian commerce, which suffered still more at the peace of Westphalia, when Holland monopolised the navigation of the Scheldt. The river was again opened at the close of the 18th c., when the French had invaded the Netherlands, and Napoleon caused the harbour of Antwerp to be restored and enlarged. At the cost of Amsterdam, Belgian commerce received a new impulse by the union of B. with Holland, as settled by the congress of Vienna; but scarcely were hopes revived, when the revolution of 1830 changed the prospects of the country. The treaty signed in London, April 19, 1839, gave to Holland the right to levy a toll of two-and-sixpence per ton on all vessels navigating the Scheldt. The privilege of navigation on the inland waters between the Scheldt and the Rhine was purchased by B. for an annual payment of £50,000. In June 1839, this privilege was virtually taken away by the government of Holland, and, in 1843, with additional expense to B., the new treaty of navigation was ratified by both parties. During this crisis preceding the development of a free commerce, B. had not neglected her internal resources. The Société de Commerce de Bruxelles, the Banque de Belgique, and other associations for the extension of trade, had been formed; and May 1, 1834, the government adopted the scheme for a railway-system the most complete of any on the continent. The centre of the Belgian net-work of railways is Malines, whence lines are carried out in all directions. The north line goes to Antwerp and its harbour; the west, by Ghent and Bruges, to Ostend; the south-west, by Brussels and Mons, to Quiévrain and the borders of France, not far from Valenciennes; and the east, by Louvain, Tirlemont, Liege, Verviers, and extending to the confines of Prussia. The entire length of these main lines in 1866 was nearly 1200 miles. The amount of government loans expended on the construction of railways up till 31st December 1857, was 186,643,242 francs. The receipts of the main railways during the same year were 25,507,617 francs; the expenses, 13,861,961 francs, shewing a net profit of 11,645,656 francs. In connection with this great scheme of internal communication, the government gave attention to commercial treaties and other measures calculated to supply the want of colonial trade. The colony founded in the district of St. Thomas by a treaty with the republic of Guatemala, has passed through a long series of difficulties, but now promises good results. In 1864, the number of ships which entered Belgian ports was 4130, and the number which left, 4116; their united tonnage, 1,573,819 tons. The articles of export are far more various than those of import. The value of Belgian exports in 1837, amounted to 129,569,000 francs; in 1847, to 205,781,000 francs; and in 1857, to 450,704,000 francs; in 1863, 533,657,281 francs. Among the principal articles of export are coal, flax, linen, woollen, and cotton goods, glass, firearms, and nails. More than a third of the whole quantity is consigned to France, and half of the remainder to the Zollverein, England, and Holland. The unit of the Belgian monetary system is the franc, equal in value to the French franc. It cannot be said that intellectual improvement has kept pace with the material prosperity of B., though in this respect also there has been a perceptible advance. The great hindrances to a thorough development of the national intellect have been the lack of political independence, which has drawn off the most precious energies of the country to foreign centres of activity; and the variety and confused mixture of dialects, whereby the true Flemish individuality has been driven into the background. An independent national literature, acting as the bond of a pure national unanimity, was not possible, under such unfavourable conditions, to which may be added the facilities afforded for supplying the people with cheap reprints of foreign works. The Flemish element-the most important—seems indeed to have become conscious of its capabilities in respect to literature; but a genuine expression of the entire Belgian mind will first become possible when the Walloon element also begins to develop a freer form of speech along with its own peculiar modes of thought. The Royal Academy of Arts and Sciences at Brussels is at the head of several other unions for scientific purposes. Among the most celebrated names in Belgian literature and science, may be mentioned-Quetelet in mathematics, Altmeyer the historian, Fetis the musical critic, Conscience the Flemish poet and novelist, Willems the philologist, and Baron and Moke in literary history and criticism. Painting and architecture formerly flourished in the wealthy old towns of Flanders; but after the brilliant epoch of Rubens and his pupils, a long period of dulness followed. In modern times, a revival of art has taken place, as may be proved by the names of the painters, Wappers, De Keyser, Gallait, De Biefve, Verboekhoven, &c.; the sculptors, W. Geefs, Simonis, Jehotte, Fraikin, &c.; the engravers, Calamatta, Brown, and Meunier; and the medallists, Wiener and Hars. The Belgian school-system suffered for more than ten years under the freedom of teaching allowed by the constitution, which was chiefly made use of by the wealthy Catholic clergy. The consequence was that education assumed a divided and sectarian character. Since the state, however, has exercised a general superintendence over the universities, gymnasia, and elementary schools, a higher style of education has prevailed. The two universities of Ghent and Liege, united with a school of architecture and mining; ten national schools (Athénées), in which a classical is combined with a commercial education; fifty schools preparatory to these (Ecoles moyennes); two seminaries for teachers at Lierre and Nivelle, besides the superintendence now exercised by the state over the institutions formerly maintained by communes and provincial corporations, and, above all, over the primary schools-all this forms a sufficient counterpoise to the numerous schools supported by private individuals and religious bodies. Among the latter may be noticed the Catholic High School of Louvain, founded in 1836, and conducted under strict ecclesiastical discipline; the free university of Brussels; and the gymnasia of the Jesuits at Namur, Brugelette, Brussels, and Liege. Journalism in B. BELGIUM. has been greatly extended by the abolition of the stamp-duty (1848), and 180 daily newspapers are now published, including 56 Flemish papers; but only a few have obtained a proper degree of respectability and influence. Population and Religion.-The population of B. is of mixed German and Celtic origin. The Flemings (a branch of the Teutonic family), and Walloons (a branch of the Celtic family), distinguished by their peculiar dialects, are still conspicuous among the pure Germans, Dutch, and French. The French language has gained the ascendency in educated society, and in the offices of government; but the Flemish dialect prevails numerically in the proportion of 4 to The Catholic religion is the prevailing form. There are only about 10,000 or 12,000 Protestants. and 1400 Jews. The supreme Catholic dignitaries of B. are the Archbishop of Mechlin, and the five diocesan bishops of Bruges, Ghent, Tournay, Namur, and Liege. 3. The government of Belgium is a limited constitutional monarchy, and was established in its present form by the revolution of 1830. The legislative body consists of two chambers-that of the senate, and that of the representatives. A responsible ministry, with the king as president, is at the head of all public affairs, and its measures are carried into effect by the governors of the several provinces. The ministry includes departments for home affairs, foreign affairs, finance, justice, public works, and war. The administration of justice retains the forms of French jurisprudence. The total revenue of B. for 1864 was 157,682,790 francs; the total expenditure was 150,943,138 francs. The national debt, May 1, 1865, amounted to 655,486,047 francs. The organization of the army is based on the law of 1845, and consisted, in 1866, of 73,718 rank and file, viz.: 56,550 infantry, 8202 cavalry, 6700 artillery, 1690 engineers, and 576 train. The Civic or National Guard, organized since 1848, includes about 90,000 men. The whole navy of B. consists only of the brig Duc de Brabant, with 20 guns; the schooner, Luise Marie, of 10 guns, two war-sloops, and five steamers, which ply as packet-boats between Ostend and Dover. The importance of B. in a military point of view affords a reason for the maintenance of fortifications at Antwerp, Ostend, Nieuport, Ypres, Tournay, Mons, and other places. History of Belgium to 1830.-In the time of the Romans, the name Gallia Belgica was given to the Southern Netherlands lying on the confines of Gaul and Germany. It was peopled by Celtic and German tribes. The latter were predominant in Batavia and Friesland, and, under the rule of the Franks in the 5th and 6th c., gained the ascendency also in the southern districts. Until the close of the 11th c., the feudal system which arose at the fall of the Carlovingian dynasty, prevailed in the Netherlands, where the several southern provinces were made duchies and counties. The county of Flanders, superior to all the others in industry and commerce, maintained, during a long struggle, its independence against France; and, in 1385, when the male line of the Counts of Flanders expired, was annexed to the powerful House of Burgundy, which, in the beginning of the 15th c., also gained posses sion of all the other provinces of the Netherlands. The rulers of Burgundy aimed at founding a powerful united state between France and Germany, and therefore endeavoured to repress the free republican spirit which manifested itself in the rapidly rising towns. The work of establishing unlimited sovereignty was interrupted by the fall of Charles the Bold, and the partial division of his territories; but was continued by the Emperor Charles V., the grandson of the Emperor Maximilian, and Maria, the heiress of Burgundy-through the latter of whom the Netherlands passed into the possession of the House of Hapsburg. After the abdication of Charles, these provinces passed into the hands of Philip II., and by the law of primogeniture, should have remained united with Spain. But scarcely had the peace of Château-Cambresis (1559) put an end to the encroachments of France, when the religious disputes of the Reformation, and the despotic measures of Philip, excited in the provinces a long and bloody war for civil and religious freedom, which ended in the independence of the Northern or Teutonic Netherlands, while in the southern or more Celtic provinces (now included under B.), both the sovereignty of Spain and the rule of the Roman Catholic Church continued. In 1598, B. was ceded by Philip II. to his daughter Isabella, wife of the Archduke Albert, when it became a distinct and independent kingdom. Several measures for the better regulation of internal affairs, especially in the administration of justice, and for the revival of industry, which had been injured by the unenlightened policy of Philip, were projected. Unfortunately, Albert died childless in 1621, and B. fell back into the hands of Spain, and became involved in the wars attending the decline of the Spanish monarchy. Peace was concluded chiefly at the cost of Belgium. By the treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), the counties of Artois, Thionville, and other districts, were given to France. Subsequent conquests by the same powerful neighbour secured to it, at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), the possession of Lille, Charleroi, Oudenarde, Courtray, and other places. These were partly restored to B. at the peace of Nimeguen; but as a compensation, Valenciennes, Nieuport, Cambray, St. Omer, Charlemont, and other places, were given up, and only partially regained by B. at the peace of Ryswick in 1697. After the conclusion of this treaty, at the close of the reign of Charles II. of Spain, some endeavours were made to create prosperity in B. by a new system of taxation and customs, and by the construction of canals, to counteract the injury done to its commerce by the closing of the navigation of the Scheldt; but these projected improvements were interrupted by the Spanish War of Succession, which was not concluded until the peace of Utrecht in 1713. By this treaty, B. was given to Austria, Holland retaining the privilege of garrisoning the most important fortresses on the French frontier, and also of exercising a monopoly of the navigation of the Scheldt. The Belgian Commercial Company' at Ostend, founded by Charles VI. in 1722, fell in 1731-another sacrifice to the cupidity of Holland. During the Austrian War of Succession (1744), almost the whole country fell into the hands of the French; but was peaceably restored to Austria by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). B. remained undisturbed by the Seven Years' War, and during the long peace following the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, prosperity was restored. Especially during the mild reign of Maria Theresa of Austria, measures of public improvement were promoted by Prince Charles of Lorraine, governor of the Belgian provinces. The reign of Joseph II., son and successor of Maria Theresa, began in disputes with Holland. The latter country consented to the abolition of the Barrière-contract, in consequence of which, several important fortresses were demolished, though the emperor failed in his endeavour to make free the navigation of the Scheldt. But the errors of his internal administration were the serious feature of his policy. By his innovations, he offended the religious sympathies of the people, and violated the legal privileges of the states, of which he had made the strict preservation BELGIUM. a condition of cbedience. In a short time, dis- were sent to the Hague to state the causes of the content openly manifested itself. The Austrian general dissatisfaction, merely insisted on its posauthorities were attacked; Brabant refused to pay taxes; while the more violent fled into Holland, and organised an armed expedition. Returning, they were joined by numbers of the inhabitants, defeated the foreign troops, captured Brussels, and in the beginning of 1790, declared their independence. In the course of the year, however, the Austrians succeeded in regaining possession of the country. The privileges of the states as they existed at the close of the reign of Maria Theresa were restored, and at the same time stringent measures were adopted to prevent any renewal of disturbances. But this state of peace was soon interrupted by the outbreak of the war of the French Revolution. B. was conquered by Pichegru in the campaign of 1794, and subsequently united to France by the treaties of Campo-Formio and Luneville. It now shared in the fortunes of France during the Consulate and the Empire; received the Code Napoleon; and in all political relations, was organised as a part of France. After the fall of Napoleon, it was united with Holland, and its boundaries defined by the Congress of Vienna (May 31, 1815). At the introduction of the new constitution, the want of national unity in language, faith, and manners was strikingly manifested by the two great parties the Dutch Protestant population, with their commercial habits, on the one side, and the Catholic population, of agricultural and manufacturing B., on the other. These natural and unavoidable obstacles to the political harmony of the new kingdom, were further increased by the unfair treatment which B. experienced. All the more important provisions of the constitution had a regard chiefly to the interests of Holland. Repeated attempts were made to supersede the Belgian language by the Dutch in all affairs of administration and jurisprudence, though the former were the more numerous people; the privileges of the Belgian clergy were abridged; the poorer classes were severely taxed; while the government was almost exclusively composed of Dutchmen. In 1830, among seven ministers, there was only one Belgian; among 117 functionaries of the ministry of the interior, only 11 Belgians; among 102 subordinates of the ministry at war, only 3 Belgians; and among 1573 officers of infantry, only 274 Belgians. B. was politically divided into two classes-the Liberal and the Catholic. Both of these strongly resented and opposed the encroachment of Holland: the Liberals, from a desire to preserve the national secular institutions; the Catholics, from a desire to preserve the national Church. The government became alarmed at their increasing hostility; and ultimately, when their patriotic fusion rendered its position critical, it made several concessions; the supremacy of the Dutch language, and the taxes on the necessaries of life, were abolished. Efforts were also made to conciliate the Catholic priesthood. But these concessions came too late, and were, in consequence, only construed as signs of weakness. In 1828 and 1829, it was attempted to coerce and intimidate the opposition, by prosecuting the liberal or democratic leaders. This only fanned the fire of discontent, which was already burning fiercely in the hearts of the Belgians, and panting for an opportunity to break out into visible insurrection. sessing a separate administration, with the redress of particular grievances. But the dilatory and obstructive conduct of the Dutch deputies in the states-general assembled at the Hague on the 13th September, exasperated the Belgian nation beyond measure. A new and more resolute insurrection instantly took place. In seven days, the people had deposed the old authorities, and appointed a provisional government. Prince Frederick, the son of the sovereign, who commanded his father's troops, was compelled to retreat from Brussels to Antwerp, having suffered considerable loss. On the 4th of October, B. was declared independent by the provisional government, composed of Messieurs Rogier, D'Hooghvorst (commandant of the civic guard), Joly, an officer of engineers, and the secretaries Vanderlinden and De Coppin; Count Felix de Mérode, Gendebien, Van de Meyer, Nicolai, and De Potter, the democratic leader. They also announced that a sketch of the new constitution was in course of preparation, and that a national congress of 200 deputies would shortly be called together. Freedom of education, of the press, of religious worship, &c., were proclaimed. Here and there, the new liberty shewed a tendency to become anarchic; but its excesses were speedily suppressed; and at the national congress of the 10th November, out of 187 votes, only 13 were in favour of a democratic government. Meanwhile, the London Congress had assembled, and after mature deliberation, recognised the severance of the two kingdoms as a fait accompli (December 10). The Belgian Congress, on its assembly (February 23, 1831), appointed Baron Surlet de Chokier provisional regent, but on the 9th July elected Prince Leopold of Saxe-Cobourg king, who entered Brussels on the 21st of the same month, and subscribed the laws of the constitution, which in the meantime had been prepared. Holland, however, refused to acknowledge the validity of the decision of the London Congress, and declared war against B., which was speedily terminated through the interference of France and England-Holland obtaining several advantages, among others, that B. should annually pay 8,400,000 guilders as interest for its share in the national debt of Holland. The latter country, however, was still dissatisfied, and again ventured to employ force. England and France were once more compelled to interfere. The blockade of the coast of Holland soon brought the Dutch to terms, and the dispute was finally closed by a treaty signed in London, May 21, 1833. The monarchy of B. is hereditary, according to the law of primogeniture, but with a perpetual exclusion of females and their descendants. The legislative power is vested in the king and two chambers; and the king has the power to dissolve either the Senate or the House of Representatives, or both. The number of the representatives is 108, elected for 4 years. Electors must be Belgians by birth or naturalisation, must have attained 25 years of age, and pay taxes, each to the amount of £1, 13s. 4d. Members of the Chamber of Representatives require no property qualification. The Senate consists of half the number of representatives, and is elected by the same constituency, but for 8 years instead of 4. A senator must be 40 years of age, and must pay at least 1000 florins of direct taxes. The budget is annually voted by the chambers, and the contingent of the army is also subject to their annual vote. From 1830 to 1858.-The French revolution of 1830 afforded the desired occasion. On the king's birthday (August 24, 1830), several riots occurred In 1842, a law was carried in both chambers, by in various towns of Belgium. At this period, which it was enacted that the parishioners should be however, the idea of separation from Holland bound to provide elementary schools, according to does not seem to have presented itself con- the wants of the population, in all places where sciously to the Belgian mind; the deputies who the want of education was not fully supplied by BELGOROD-BELIAL. voluntary means. The main regulations for the universities were effected by the ministry of De Theux, 1835; but the organisation of intermediate instruction (that is, between the Ecoles Primaires and the universities) was postponed, as involving some delicate party interests, until 1850; and even then was not concluded in a way satisfactory to the Catholic clergy. In 1838, it seemed as if Holland and B. were likely to engage in war once more. According to the twenty-four articles' of the 'Definitive Treaty,' B. was under obligation to give up Limbourg and a part of Luxembourg during the above-mentioned year. This it now refused to do, and put its army on a war-footing; but its obstinacy finally gave way to the unanimous decision of the five great powers. After 1840, the opposition of the Catholic to the Liberal party became more and more decided. The elections of June 8, 1841, were attended with great excitement, and it was a significant fact, that the liberal candidates re-elected were everywhere re turned by large majorities, while in the principal towns where Catholics were returned, only small majorities appeared. Meantime, however, commerce progressed under a wise and liberal policy. BELGORO'D (Russian Bejelgorod, White Town')' a town of 12.000 inhabitants, in the Russian govern ment of Koursk. It is situated on the Donetz, in lat. 50° 40′ N., long. 36° 35' E. B., which derives its name from a chalk-hill in the vicinity, is divided into two-the old and the new towns. It is built chiefly of wood, is an archbishop's see, has numerous churches, two monasteries, manufactories of leather, soap, &c., and carries on a considerable trade in wax, bristles, and hemp. Three important fairs are held here during the year. BELGRADE, the ancient Singidunum, styled by the Turks Darol-Jihad, the House of the Holy War,' and in German, Weissenburg, is an important fortified and commercial town, capital of Servia. It is situated at the confluence of the rivers Save and Danube. The name B. is derived from the Slavonic bielo,white,' and grad or grod, a 'fort' or 'town.' B. contains about 30,000 inhabitants, and is divided into four parts-the fortress, a very strong place, which, situated on the tongue of land between the rivers, commands the Danube; the Water Town, also well protected by walls and ditches, on the north; the Raitzen Town on the west; and the Palanka on the south and east of the citadel. B. contains fourteen mosques, of which the principal In July 1845, the liberal Van de Weyer, at the one is in the citadel. head of a new administration, endeavoured to con-horse-tails,' has his residence. Vessels navigating Here the pasha, of three firm the so-called 'union' of Catholics and Liberals. the Danube anchor between the three islands above But he had scarcely asserted the prerogative of the Belgrade. B. has manufactories of arms, cutlery, civil power in matters pertaining to the question of saddlery, silk goods, carpets, &c., and is the seat education in the 'intermediate schools,' when he was forsaken by his colleagues, who acted under the of the chief Servian authorities. It is the entrepôt of the trade between Turkey and Austria. The influence of the Catholic priesthood. In March 1846, a purely Catholic ministry was formed under position of B. has made it the chief point of communication between Constantinople and Vienna, the presidency of De Theux. This was an anachron- and the key to Hungary on the south-east. It has ism, for the elections of 1845 had secured a victory consequently been the scene of many hard contests. The Greeks held it until 1073, when it was captured After this, it by the Hungarian king, Salomon. Bosnians, and Servians, and these last proprietors passed through the hands of Greeks, Bulgarians, sold it, in the beginning of the 15th c., to the Emperor Sigismund. In 1442, it was unsuccessfully besieged by the Turks, with a large and vain outlay of time and money; and when stormed (July 14, 1456), was retaken from the Turks by the heroism of Hunyades and Capistrano. In 1522, it was carried by the Sultan Soliman II. In 1688, it was Bavaria; but in 1690 was recaptured by the Turks, stormed and taken by Maximilian, Elector of when the Christian garrison had been reduced to 500 men. In 1693, B. was vainly besieged by the Duke of Croy; and in 1717, the citadel surrendered to Prince Eugene, after he had defeated an army of 200,000 Turks, with a loss to them of 20,000 men. But in 1739, B. again changed owners, the Turks obtaining it without a shot. In conformity with the treaty then signed, the fortifications were demolished. In 1789, it was again taken by the Austrians under General Laudon; but by the treaty of peace, 1791, was restored to the Turks, and-excepting a for the Liberals. The elections of 1847 at last brought to a close the system of government in subservience to the church. A new liberal ministry was formed by Rogier and others, whose programme of policy promised the maintenance of the independent civil authority in all its subordinate functionaries; a budget favourable to the public with regard to duties on provisions; and measures to promote the interests of agriculture. The institution of numer ous agricultural and commercial schools, normal ateliers, popular libraries, and other means used for raising the working-classes, were followed by most beneficial results. The revolutionary tempest of 1848, however, menaced the tranquillity of the country; but the king, at the outbreak of the catastrophe in France, promptly declared himself ready to retain or to surrender the crown of B. according to the decision of the people. This frank and ready declaration had a successful result in strengthening the party of order, while it disarmed even those most disaffected to the crown. In July 1848, the result of the elections was found to be a great strengthening of the liberalconstitutional party. In November 1849, a new commercial treaty for ten years was concluded temporary possession of 7 years, from 1806 to 1813, with France, and the duration of the treaty with by the insurgent Servians-has, since that time, remained in subjection to Turkey. By the peace of the German Zollverein was lengthened. In the session of 1850, the educational question was at last Adrianople (1829), the Porte was allowed to mainDuring the disposed of. During the last decade, the Liberal tain in B. a garrison of 3000 men. party has, on the whole, steadily increased in Crimean war, the defences were strengthened, and numbers and influence. The most recent elections the garrison largely increased. incontestably prove this, the Liberals being nearly two to one, and their majorities coming from the principal towns in the kingdom. Nothomb's Travaux Publics en Belgium (Bruss. 1839); Statistique de la B., by the same author (1848); Juste, Histoire de B., (3d ed., Bruss. 1850); Popliment, La B. depuis l'an 1880 (Bruss. 1850). BE'LIAL, or, more accurately, Beli'al, a Lebrew word, signifying idle, wicked, or unprofitable. The scripture phrase, therefore, 'Sons of B.,' was originally, in all probability, a mere Hebrew figurative expression denoting worthless or dissolute persons. At a later period, the idea of evil which the word embodies, seems to have been elaborated into a BELIEF. personality, and B. is supposed by some to correspond to the Pluto of the Greeks. BELIEF. This is a word sufficiently intelligible in common speech; but nevertheless, various subtle problems and protracted controversies have been connected with it. A brief account of the chief of these may be here given. 1. It has been a matter of no small difficulty with mental philosophers, to give an exact rendering of the state of mind so denominated, or to specify the exact import, test, or criterion of the act of believing. It is easy enough to comprehend what is meant by an idea or a notion, as when we speak of having the idea of a rose, its shape, colour, odour, &c. ; but when we make the further step of affirming our belief in the sweetness of the rose, it is not easy to describe the exact change that has come over the mind in so doing. In all belief, there must be something intellectual, something thought of, or conceived by the mind; and hence there has been a disposition to recognise the believing function as one of the properties of our intelligence. We believe that the sun will rise and the tides flow to-morrow: here are undoubtedly implied intellectual conceptions of the sun, his rising, and of to-morrow; of the sea, its movements, and so on. But the question comes, what is the difference between conceptions believed in as these are, and conceptions quite as clear and intelligible that are not believed? as the notion that the fluctuation of the sea on the shores of Britain is the same as on the shores of Italy. It is not to the purpose to say, that in the one case we have knowledge and evidence, and not in the other; for what is wanted is to define the change that comes over us, when what is a mere notion or supposition passes into a conviction; when a day-dream or hypothesis comes to take rank as truth. To answer this inquiry, we must bring in a reference to action; for although belief connects itself with our intelligence, as now mentioned, it has action for its root and ultimate criterion. Coming up to the edge of a frozen lake, and looking at the thickness of the ice, we believe that it will bear to be trodden on, and accordingly walk across it. The meaning or purport of the believing state here is, that we do not hesitate to trust our safety to the fact believed. The measure of our confidence is the measure of our readiness to act upon our conviction. If the frozen lake lie between us and our destination, we feel elated by the certainty of arriving there, which we should not under a weak or imperfect trust in the goodness of the ice. Belief, therefore, although embodied in ideas, or intellectual conceptions, is in reality a moral power, operating on our conduct, and affecting our happiness or misery. Belief in coming good cheers us almost as much as if it were already come; a like strength of conviction of approaching evil is to the same degree depressing; the devils believe and tremble.' These two tests-readiness to act according to what we believe, and influence on the mental tone -effectually separate the state in question from mere notion, fancies, or suppositions, unaccompanied with credence. We have firm confidence in the food we eat being able to nourish us; we exert ourselves to procure that food, and when we feel hungry, and see it before us, we have the mental elation arising from a near and certain prospect of relief and gratification. If there be anything that we work languidly to procure, and feel little elated by being near or possessing, our conviction is proved to be feeble as to the utility of that thing, or as to the pleasure we shall derive from it. So, in employing means to compass ends, as when we sow that we may reap, work that we may obtain abundance, study that we may be informed-we have a certain confidence in the connection between the means and the ends; in other words, we are energetically urged to use those means, and having done so, we have the feeling as if the ends were already attained. Even in cases the furthest removed in appearance from any action of ours, there is no other criterion. We believe a great many truths respecting the world, in the shape of general propositions, scientific statements, affirmations on testimony, &c., which are so much beyond our own little sphere, that we can rarely have any occasion to involve them in our own procedure, or to feel any hopeful elation on their account. We likewise give credit to innumerable events of past history, although the greater number of them have never any consequences as regards ourselves. Yet, notwithstanding such remoteness of interest, the tests now mentioned must apply; otherwise, there is no real conviction in any one instance. There is a distinction, first characterised by Aristotle, between potentiality and actuality (posse and esse), which truly represents two different states of mind of real occurrence. Besides the actual doing of a thing, we know what it is to be in a state of preparedness to act, before the emergency has arisen, or while it is still at a distance and uncertain. The thirsty traveller, not knowing of a spring where he may drink, is debarred from the act that his condition prompts him to, but he is in an attitude of mind that we call being ready for action the moment the opportunity arrives. We all carry about us a number of unexecuted resolutions, some of them perhaps remaining so to the last, for want of the occasion. They are not, on that account, to be set aside as having no part in our nature; they are genuine phases of our activity. So it is with many things believed in by us, without any actual prospect of grounding actions, or staking our welfare, upon such things. When we say we believe that the circumference of the globe is 25,000 miles, if not repeating an empty sound, or indulging an idle conception, we give it out that if any occasion arise for acting on this fact, we are ready to do so. If we were about to circumnavigate the earth, we should commit ourselves to this reckoning. Should there be any hesitation on the point when the time for action came, the professed belief would be shewn to be hollow, no matter, how often we heard the statement, or repeated it, with acquiescence. The genuineness of conviction is notoriously open to question, until an opportunity of proceeding upon it occurs. Very often we deceive ourselves and others on the point whether we are in full potentiality or preparedness in some matter of truth or falsehood. There is a very large amount of blind acquiescence in, or tacit acceptance of, propositions which never become the subject of any real or practical stake. These beliefs falsely so called confuse the line of demarcation between mere intellectual notions and states of credence or conviction. Of this nature is the acceptance given by the mass of mankind to the statements they are accustomed to hear from the better informed class respecting the facts of science and the transactions of history. They do not dispute those statements; and yet they might be little disposed to commit their serious interests to such facts. So with regard to the religious creed handed down from parent to child. Some are found believing, in the full import of the term; others, opposing no negative in any way, yet never perform any actions, or entertain either hopes or fears, as a consequence of their supposed acceptance of the religion of their fathers; their belief, accordingly, must be set down as a nonentity. 2. There is considerable interest attached to the |