by convolutions, b, and a smooth appearance is given turned the opposite way. We have now removed to the whole surface by the glistening arachnoid | the hemispherical ganglion, and uncovered the others. membrane (q. v.). On slicing them transversely The pia mater, which supports the vessels bringing with a knife, the section appears white in the centre, blood to the B. substance, is seen in a purple wreath and gray at the margins, of the convolutions, which lying in each ventricle, and passing down into a are now seen penetrating to various depths below depression termed the middle horn of the ventricle. the surface. The white substance is dotted with the This is the choroid plexus, and, if lifted, it will be blood-vessels which supply the brain. On drawing found continuous with that on the opposite side, the hemispheres asunder from each other with the through an aperture called the Foramen of Monro, fingers, the great commissure, or uniting band, is e, after the great Scotch anatomist of that name. If seen, the corpus callosum, which is streaked both the remains of the corpus callosum are now scraped longitudinally and transversely. The hemispheres away, the choroid plexus will be found continuous should now be completely sliced off on a level with with a web of pia mater called the velum interpothis commissure, and its transverse fibres will be situm, which lies over the central cavity of the B., seen to extend into their substance, constituting a or third ventricle. In front and behind will be seen large white surface, called by anatomists the white portions of the inferior longitudinal commissure or oval centre. fornix, h, the body of which has been removed to shew the velum; but, placed vertically between its anterior part and the under surface of the corpus callosum, are two layers of gray matter, between which is a narrow space termed the fifth ventricle, g. Behind, there will be seen a small hole, through which a probe will pass into the fourth ventricle, l.

If we take the handle of the knife, and scratch with it through this white substance, the instrument soon opens a cavity, which is the lateral ventricle (fig. 4). Let this be done on both sides, and the ventricles exposed to view. They are shaped somewhat like the italic S. Their extremities are

Fig. 4. Human adult Brain:
In this dissection the cerebral lobes have been sliced off, and

the lateral ventricles opened; to allow a view of the cere-
bellum, the posterior part of the cerebrum has been cut off
opposite n

a, a, remains of white oval centre; b, b, gray outer portion of
hemispheres; c, longitudinal fissure; d, corpus striatum, or
streaked body lying in lateral ventricle; e, optic thalamus;
ftaenia semicircularis, or worm-like body; g, the two
layers of septum lucidum, open to shew fifth ventricle; h
anterior crura, or portions of the fornix, one of the great
antero-posterior commissures; i, points to the foramen of
Monro, a bristle is sticking down into the third ventricle;
k, is the middle, or soft transverse commissure, joining the
two optic thalami-sometimes absent, and easily destroyed;
1, a bristle passed from the third to the fourth ventricle (4),
the transverse lines beneath it indicate the posterior trans-
verse commissure; m, the pineal gland, lying on n, the cor-
pora quadrigemina; o, valve of Vieussens, a layer of gray
matter from cerebellum; p. processes which connect the
cerebellum to corpora quadrigemina: q, section of cerebel-
lum line, points to gray matter in fourth ventricle; r, white
matter projecting into the gray, giving a toothed or arbo-
rescent appearance, hence the name, arbor vita, &, posterior
pyramids, or back of medulla oblongata.

termed cornua, and the anterior look from each
other, and are nearer than the posterior, which are

The accompanying cut (fig. 4) shews the parts now exposed. The mass most in front is the corpus striatum, d, behind it is the optic thalamus, e. Through the former, motor fibres pass from the anterior columns of the spinal cord into the hemisphere through the latter, the sensory fibres from the posterior columns of the cord. These are by some considered to be the ganglia of motion and common sensation.

Behind these are the corpora quadrigemina, n, which are analogues of the optic ganglia of the lower animals. Upon them lies the pineal gland, m, and behind them, projecting into the fourth ventricle, q, some gray matter, said to be the auditory ganglia. We now come to the upper surface of the cerebellum, consisting of two hemispheres split transversely into leaflets, and connected by a central portion to each other, and by two bundles of white fibres to the corpora quadrigemina, p. Between these is the fourth ventricle; and stretched across between them is a thin layer of gray matter, called the valve of Vieussens, o.

We now turn what remains of the B. upside down, and examine the base or under surface. It is very irregular in outline. The cerebral hemispheres are now found to be divided on each side by a fissure (Sylvian), f. The part in front is called the anterior lobe; that behind the middle, as far as the cerebellum, when it is called the posterior lobe.

The diagram (fig. 5) gives a better idea of the appearance than words could possibly do. The olfactory lobes, h, h, are now seen lying in a fissure in the anterior lobes. The optic tracts are seen meeting at their commissure, i, interchanging fibres, The larger bundles behind, and directed outwards, and passing on as the optic nerves to the orbit. are the crura cerebri, p, passing towards the hemispheres, emerging from the transverse mass called the pons varolii, s, which lies like a clamp between the two halves of the cerebellum, d. From the inner side of each crus arises the third nerve, o, destined to supply four of the muscles which move the eyeball. The fourth nerve, q, comes from the valve of Vieussens, and is seen on its way to supply the superior oblique muscle which turns the eye upwards and outwards, hence called patheticus. From each side of the pons the fifth pair, r, arises; the sixth, t, between the pons and the anterior pyramids of the medulla oblongata; w, is the eighth, consisting of: 1. The Glosso-pharyngeal, or nerve of deglutition; 2. The Pneumo-gastric distributed to the respiratory apparatus and stomach; and with it, 3. The Spinal Accessory.

BRAINTREE-BRAMANTE.

species are few, and chiefly belong to the oolitic for-young shoots as they appear. The annual growth

mation.

BRAINTREE, a market-town of Essex, about 40 miles north-east from London. It is an old place, having been constituted a market-town by King John. Its streets are narrow, and many of its houses are of wood. It has manufactures of silk and crape, and also of straw-plait. It is the polling place for North Essex, and has obtained some notoriety in connection with political and ecclesiastical proceedings. Pop. of town about 3000.

BRAKE, a genus of Ferns of the division Poly podea, distinguished by spore-cases in marginal lines covered by the reflexed margin of the frond. The COMMON B. or BRACKEN (P. aquilina) is very abundant in Britain and in most parts of the continent of Europe, growing in heaths, parks, &c., often covering considerable tracts. It is a widely distributed plant, and is found in many parts of Asia, and in some parts of Africa. It has a long, creeping, black rhizome, or root-stock, from which grow up naked stalks of 8-18 inches in height; each stalk divides at top into three branches;

Common Brake:

of B. is killed by the first frosts of autumn, but remains rigid and brown, still affording shelter to game, and almost as characteristic a feature in the landscape of winter as in that of summer, perhaps adding to its general desolateness.-Pleris caudata, a large species of B. very similar to that of Europe, is one of the worst pests which the farmer has to contend with in the south of Brazil.-Pteris esculenta, a native of New Zealand, Van Diemen's Land, &c., has a more nutritious rhizome than the common brake. See TARA FERN.-Rock B.

(Cryptogamma crispa or Allosorus crispus, formerly Pteris crispa) is a pretty little fern, common on stony hills in the northern parts of Britain.

BRAMA, a genus of fishes of the family Chatodontide (q. v.). B. Raii is common in the Mediterranean, and occasionally found on the British shores. It is one of the fishes to which the name Bream (q. v.) or Sea-bream has been given; and it has also been described as a Gilt-head (q. v.); but these names belong to fishes of other families, with some similarity of general appearance. The genus B. has the body very deep and compressed, the head rather obtusely terminated, a single elongated dorsal fin, and the anal fin with a very lengthened base. The tail is forked, its points extremely divergent. This fish is sometimes more than two feet in length. of exquisite flavour.

Its flesh is

BRAMAH, JOSEPH, an eminent practical machinist, the son of a farmer, was born at Stainborough, Yorkshire, April 13, 1749, and early exhibited an unusual talent for mechanics. Incapacitated in his 16th year from agricultural labours by an accidental lameness, he was apprenticed to a carpenter and joiner, and afterwards obtained employment with а cabinet-maker in London. Subsequently, he established himself in business in the metropolis, and became distinguished for the number, value, and ingenuity of his mechanical inventions, such as safety-locks, improvements in pumps and fire-engines, in the construction of boilers for steam engines, in the processes of making paper, in the construction of main-pipes, wheel-carriages, the beer-machine used: at the bar of public-houses, and many others. About 1800, he constructed the hydrostatic press known by See HYDROSTATIC PRESS. In all, he took out about twenty patents. He died 9th Decem ber 1814.

a, end of a branch, much reduced; b, end of a pinnule, the his name. lower side, shewing fructification.

the branches are bipinnate, the inferior pinnules pinnatifid. The root-stock, when cut across, exhibits an appearance which has been supposed to resemble a spread eagle, whence the specific name aquilina (Lat. aquila, an eagle). The root-stock is bitter, and has been used as a substitute for hops; it has also been ground, mixed with barley, and made into a wretched bread in times of distress. The plant is astringent and anthelmintic; and as such, it had at one time a high reputation, although it is now little used, at least by medical practitioners. It is employed in dressing kid and chamois leather. The ashes, containing a large quantity of alkali, were formerly used in the manufacture of soap and of glass, so that the collecting of them for sale was a considerable resource of the poor in some parts of the Hebrides. B. is also employed for thatching, for littering cattle, &c., and occasionally chopped up with straw or hay, for feeding cattle. It is a favourite covert of deer and of other game. The abundance of this plant is sometimes regarded as a sign of poor land, although, probably, its absence from the richer soils is very much a result of cultivation. To extirpate it, nothing more is necessary than a few successive mowings of the

BRAMA'NTÉ, DONATO LAZZARI, one of the most celebrated Italian architects, and also distinguished as a painter, was born at Monte-Asdroaldo, in the duchy of Urbino, 1444. From 1476, to 1499, he resided at Milan, where he studied geometry and perspective, neither of which sciences was well understood by artists in his day. He was noted as one of the best painters in Lombardy; but his success in architecture eclipsed his fame as a painter. In Milan, he built the choir of Santa-Maria delle Grazie, and the church of Santa-Maria presso SanSatiro. After the fall of Ludovico Sforza, B. went to Rome, where he was first employed by the pope Alexander VI., and afterwards by Julius II. The first great work which he undertook for the latter was to connect the Vatican palace with the two pavilions: of the Belvedere by a series of immense galleries; the second was the rebuilding of St. Peter's Church,. of which he laid the new foundation in 1506. When only a small portion of his plans had been realised, B. died at Rome, 1514, and succeeding architects departed widely from the original design of a grand cupola over a Greek cross. Among other works of B. in Rome may be mentioned the palaces

BRAMBANAN-BRAMPTON.

Cancellaria and Giraud (now Torlonia), in which he | nately given, and which may almost all be regarded adhered more strictly than in other works to antique forms, but not without a characteristic grace in his application of these.

The

BRAMBANA'N, a district of the province of Soorakarta, Java, rich in remains of Brahmanical temples, which are superior in magnificence to any in India. The edifices are composed entirely of bewn stone, and no mortar has been used in their construction. In all, there are 296 temples, disposed in five parallelograms one within the other. outer one consists of 84 temples; the second, of 76; the third, of 64; the fourth, of 44; and the inner one, of 28. In the centre stands the largest and most imposing structure of all. It is 90 feet high, and profusely decorated with mythological figures, which are executed in a very fair style of art. On the south face of the outside parallelogram, there are two monstrous figures, with uplifted clubs, kneeling in a threatening attitude. The great temple is pretty entire, as are also about a third of the others, but the rest lie strewn upon the ground.

BRA'MBLE (Rubus fruticosus), a plant common in Britain and most parts of Europe, having prickly stems, which somewhat resemble those of the Raspberry (q. v.). The flowers do not appear till the summer is considerably advanced, and the fruit ripens towards the end of it, continuing to be produced till the frosts of winter set in. The fruit (brambleberry or blackberry) is too well known to need description. Besides affording much enjoyment to children, who collect it from hedges and thickets, it is sometimes offered for sale in towns, and jelly and jam are prepared from it of very delicate flavour, besides a wine, which, both in strength and flavour, is held by many to excel all products of similar native fruits of Britain. The B. is rarely cultivated, perhaps because it is in most districts so abundant in a wild state; but it seems to deserve attention at least as much as the raspberry, and might probably be as much improved by cultivation. A slight rail on each side of a row of brambles, to restrain the straggling stems, affords the necessary security for neatness and order, and the care bestowed is repaid by abundance of fruit,

as belonging to the Linnæan Rubus fruticosus.
From this was separated R. Corylifolius of Smith,
a common British plant, and from these some
German and British botanists have separated many
R. suberectus has more the
other alleged species.
habit of the raspberry than most of the other kinds,
but even its claims to be received as a species are
not admitted without doubt by some of the most
eminent botanists. A variety of B. with white
fruit is occasionally met with.-Species of Rubus
very similar to the common B., or varieties of it,
abound in the northern parts of Asia, the Himalaya
Mountains, and North America. See RUBUS.

The

BRAMBLING, BRAMBLEFINCH, or MOUNTAIN FINCH (Fringilla Montifringilla; see FINCH and FRINGILLIDE), a bird nearly allied to the ChafIt is a little larger than the chaffinch, finch (q. v.). which it much resembles in its general appearance, its bill, and even the disposal of its colours. tail is more forked. In the males, the crown of the head, the cheeks, the back and sides of the neck, and the upper part of the back, are mottled in winter with brown and black; but in spring, the whole of these parts become of a rich velvety black; the throat and breast are of a rich fawn colour, which is also the prevailing colour of the wings, but they are crossed, when closed, by an oblique band of jet-black, and by another oblique band of white. The quill-feathers are also black, edged with yellow on their outer webs; the tail-feathers black, edged with reddish white; the rump and the belly are white; a small tuft of feathers under each wing and some of the lower wing-coverts are bright yellow. The B. is a mere winter visitant in Britain,

Brambling, or Mountain Finch.

and the period of its arrival appears to vary according to the severity or mildness of the weather in the more northerly regions. The B. has never been known to breed in any part of the British islands, and even in the south of Sweden it is a mere winter visitant. It breeds in the more northerly parts of Scandinavia. It has no song, its call-note is a single monotonous chirp. It is a very widely distributed species, being found as far east as Japan, and, in its winter migrations, visiting Italy, Sicily, Malta, Smyrna, &c.

BRA'MPTON, a very ancient town in the county of Cumberland, near the Arthing, 8 miles east-northeast of Carlisle. It is surrounded by hills; and the Castle-hill commands a very extensive view. Pop. 3074. The chief manufacture is the weaving of checks and ginghams; and there are coal-mines in the vicinity. On a rock, two miles to the south, is a Roman inscription, supposed to have been cut by one of Agricola's legions in 207 A. D. Two miles to the east stands Lanercost Abbey, founded in 1116.

BRAN-BRANDENBURG.

BRAN is the material obtained from the outer corn-plants, which are also called BLIGHT, Bunt, covering or husk of grain during the process of MILDEW, RUST, and SMUT.-See these heads. It is grinding, and which is separated from the finer flour the German name for the disease generally known before the latter is made into bread (q. v.). It is in Britain, as BUNT, and sometimes as Pepper generally met with in commerce in thin scaly yellow-brand. Both as a German and an English word, ish-brown particles, with sharp edges, and its com- it appears to be derived from the verb brennen to position in 100 parts is as follows: