To enter upon the whole extent of the career of Socrates and of its effects on after ages, would be to open more questions than our limits allow. To exhibit him in his aspect as the 'parens philosophiæ,' to represent the relation in which he stood to the speculations of his own and subsequent times, would lead us too far away from the period on which we have taken our stand, and could be fitly discussed only when Mr. Grote has finished those chapters on Plato and Aristotle without which the whole subject is essentially incomplete. But there is already before us the simpler and humbler aspect of the position of Socrates as a man-as a living, historical character at the close of the Peloponnesian war-and to this we propose to confine ourselves. Whatever may be thought of Mr. Grote's exposition of his philosophy, there can, we think, be no question of the light thrown in these volumes upon his life; and we will venture to claim for such an historical representation of his life an importance greater than that which is commonly ascribed to it. Even with respect to the two great disciples of Socrates, we feel that we have never been confronted as we might have been with the actual men themselves, if we would rightly understand, we will not say their abstract speculations, but at least the outward form in which those speculations clothed themselves. How little do we ordinarily realize the hostile position which Plato took up against the whole framework of Athenian society-that position which awakened in Niebuhr an almost personal dislike against him as 'a thoroughly bad citizen,' and which gives a directly practical bias even to his most ideal theories. How little

do we think of Aristotle as the tutor of the Macedonian prince, as belonging to the time when Athenian freedom had expired, and the age of criticism was creeping over the whole face of the intellectual world in advances parallel with those by which the sway of Alexander extended itself over the world of Grecian politics. How much of the outward differences between the animated dialogues of the one and the calm treatises of the other would be illustrated by their respective positions in Greek society; how much of the otherwise unaccountable misunderstanding and misrepresentation of the earlier by the later philosopher would be explained by an attentive consideration of the difference between the stirring age of Isocrates and Demosthenes which witnessed the career of Plato, and the chilling though tranquillizing effect of the Macedonian empire which sheltered the rise of Aristotle. And if the contemplation of their history is necessary to the appreciation of their philosophy, much more is it in the case of their great master, whose career is far more

intimately

intimately interwoven with the interests of his time, and who lived in a time when those interests were far more lively than at any later period.

It is not in the public course of Greek events that Socrates is most familiar to us. Yet for that very reason there is a peculiar interest in first approaching him, as in a purely historical point of view we must approach him, on the larger and more complex sphere of war and politics, which forms the chief topic of Grecian history. And every student knows the gratification of meeting such characters at moments where one least expects to find them, especially (as in this case) on occasions which illustrate and call forth some of their most remarkable qualities. It is the surprise of encountering a friend in a strange country-it is the instruction of seeing a character which we have long known and admired in private put to a public test, and coming through the trial triumphantly. In the winter campaign at Potidea, when the Athenian army was struck down by the severity of the Thracian frosts, we start with a thrill of pleasure as we recognise in the one soldier, whose spirits and strength continued unbroken by the hardship of that northern climate, the iron frame and constitution of the great philosopher. We survey with renewed interest the confused flight from the field of Delium, when we remember that from that flight the youthful Xenophon was borne away on the broad shoulders of his illustrious friend. In the trial of the ten generals-but Mr. Grote must relate for himself the most memorable incident of that exciting drama-when

'the Prytanes were so intimidated by the incensed manifestations of the assembly that all of them, except one, relinquished their opposition and agreed to put the question. That single obstinate Prytanis, whose refusal no menace could subdue, was a man whose name we read with peculiar interest, and in whom an impregnable adherence to law and duty was only one amongst many titles to honour. It was the philosopher Sokratês-on this trying occasion, once throughout a life of seventy years discharging a political office among the fifty senators taken by lot from the tribe Antiochis.'

Once, or it may be twice again was he allowed to exhibit to the world that most touching and instructive of historical lessons—a good man, not in the vehemence of political excitement, but in the simple performance of his duty, setting at defiance unjust or tyrannical enactments. We must transport ourselves to the Athenian Reign of Terror, the domination of the thirty tyrants, after the oligarchical revolution of Lysander. Here again Mr. Grote must show how forcibly the situation of affairs illustrates and is illustrated by the character of Socrates.

'Pursuant

'Pursuant to their general plan of implicating unwilling citizens in their misdeeds, the Thirty sent for five citizens to the tholus or government-house, and ordered them, with terrible menaces, to cross over to Salamis, and bring back Leon as prisoner. Four out of the five obeyed: the fifth was the philosopher Sokratês, who refused all concurrence, and returned to his own house, while the other four went to Salamis, and took part in the seizure of Leon. Though he thus braved all the wrath of the Thirty, it appears that they thought it expedient to leave him untouched. But the fact that they singled him out for such an atrocity-an old man of tried virtue, both private and public, and intellectually commanding, though at the same time intellectually unpopular-shows to what an extent they carried their system of forcing unwilling participants; while the farther circumstance that he was the only person who had the courage to refuse, among four others who yielded to intimidation, shows that the policy was for the most part successful.'-vol. viii. p. 332.

This was the last time that the philosopher appeared in the political transactions of his country, unless we may believe the later traditions which represent him as present at that most striking and tragical scene,' when Theramenes sprang on the sacred hearth of the Athenian senate-house for protection against his murderers, and when, as we are told, Socrates and two of his friends alone stood forward to protect him, as Satyrus, the Santerre of this Athenian terrorism, dragged him by main force from the altar.

Such was the political life of Socrates-important in a high degree as proving that, unlike many eminent teachers, his character stood the test of public no less than of private morality-as exemplifying also the principle on which a good man may save the state not by going out of his way to seek for trials of his strength, but by being fully prepared to meet them when they come. Had nothing more been handed down to us of his life but these comparatively trifling incidents, we should still have dwelt with peculiar pleasure on the scenes in which his name occurs, as, in fact, amidst the naughty world' of Grecian politics we dwell on 'the good deeds' of the humane Nicomachus, or of the noble Callicratidas; we should still have desired to know something more of the general character and pursuits of so honest and fearless a citizen.

That desire, as all the world knows, is gratified beyond all other example in the ancient world, by what is left us of the individual life of Socrates, which even in his own time made him the best known Athenian of his day, and in later times has so completely thrown his political acts into the shade, that not one in ten thousand of those to whom his name is a household word, has any knowledge

intimately interwoven with the interests of his time, and who lived in a time when those interests were far more lively than at any later period.

It is not in the public course of Greek events that Socrates is most familiar to us. Yet for that very reason there is a peculiar interest in first approaching him, as in a purely historical point of view we must approach him, on the larger and more complex sphere of war and politics, which forms the chief topic of Grecian history. And every student knows the gratification of meeting such characters at moments where one least expects to find them, especially (as in this case) on occasions which illustrate and call forth some of their most remarkable qualities. It is the surprise of encountering a friend in a strange country-it is the instruction of seeing a character which we have long known and admired in private put to a public test, and coming through the trial trium phantly. In the winter campaign at Potidea, when the Athenia army was struck down by the severity of the Thracian frosts, w start with a thrill of pleasure as we recognise in the one soldie whose spirits and strength continued unbroken by the hardship that northern climate, the iron frame and constitution of the gr philosopher. We survey with renewed interest the confu flight from the field of Delium, when we remember that f that flight the youthful Xenophon was borne away on the L shoulders of his illustrious friend. In the trial of the ten rals but Mr. Grote must relate for himself the most mem incident of that exciting drama-when

the Prytanes were so intimidated by the incensed manifestat the assembly that all of them, except one, relinquished their op and agreed to put the question. That single obstinate Prytani refusal no menace could subdue, was a man whose name we r peculiar interest, and in whom an impregnable adherence to duty was only one amongst many titles to honour. It was : sopher Sokrates-on this trying occasion, once throughout seventy years discharging a political office among the fift taken by lot from the tribe Antiochis.'

Once, or it may be twice again was he allowed to ex world that most touching and instructive of historical good man, not in the vehemence of political excitement simple performance of his duty, setting at defiance unji nical enactments. We must transport ourselves to t Reign of Terror, the domination of the thirty tyran oligarchical revolution of Lysander. Here again M: show how forcibly the situation of affairs illustrates trated by the character of Socrates.