Those articles which did our state decrease. DANIEL.

It is very disgraceful for a gentleman to associate

with those who are his inferiors in station and educa

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tion; Masters must correct their servants with gentleness, prudence, and mercy, not with upbraiding and disgraceful language.' TAYLOR (Holy Living) It is very shameful for a gentleman to use his rank and influence over the lower orders only to mislead them from their duty;

This all through that great prince's pride did fall,
And came to shameful end. SPENSER.

A person is likewise said to be dishonorable who is disposed to bring dishonor upon himself; but things only are disgraceful or shameful: a dishonorable man renders himself an outcast among his equals; he must then descend to his inferiors, among whom he may become familiar with the disgraceful and the shameful: men of cultivation are alive to what is dishonorable; men of all stations are alive to that which is for them disgraceful, or to that which is in itself shameful: the sense of what is dishonorable is to the superior what the sense of the disgraceful is to the inferior; but the sense of what is shameful is independent of rank or station, and forms a part of that moral sense which is inherent in the breast of every rational creature. Whoever therefore cherishes in himself a lively sense of what is dishonorable or disgraceful is tolerably secure of never committing any thing that is shameful.

DISCREDIT, DISGRACE, REPROACH, SCANDAL.

Discredit signifies the loss of credit; disgrace, the loss of grace, favor, or esteem; reproach stands for the thing that deserves to be reproached; and scandal for the thing that gives scandal or offence.

The conduct of men in their various relations with each other may give rise to the unfavorable sentiment which is expressed in common by these terms. Things are said to reflect discredit, or disgrace to bring reproach or scandal, on the individual. These terms seem to rise in sense one upon the other: disgrace is a stronger term then discredit; reproach than disgrace; and scandal than reproach.

Discredit interferes with a man's credit or respectability; disgrace marks him out as an object of unfavorable distinction; reproach makes him a subject of reproachful conversation; scandal makes him an object of offence or even abhorrence. As regularity in hours, regularity in habits or modes of living, regularity in payments, are a credit to a family; so is any deviation from this order to its discredit: as moral rectitude, kindness, charity, and benevolence, serve to ensure the good-will and esteem of men; so do instances of unfair dealing, cruelty, inhumanity, and an unfeeling temper, tend to the disgrace of the offender: as a life of distinguished virtue or particular instances of moral excellence may cause a man to be spoken of in strong terms of commendation; so will flagrant atrocities or a course of immorality cause his proach: as the profession of a Christian with a conname and himself to be the general subject of resistent practice is the greatest ornament which a man can put on so is the profession with an inconsistent practice the greatest deformity that can be witnessed ; it is calculated to bring a scandal on religion itself in the eyes of those who do not know and feel its intrinsic excellences.

Discredit depends much on the character, circumstances, and situation of those who discredit and sible situations, and have had confidence reposed in those who are discredited. Those who are in responthem, must have a peculiar guard over their conduct not to bring discredit on themselves: disgrace depends on the temper of men's minds as well as collateral circumstances; where a nice sense of moral propriety is prevalent prevalent in any community, disgrace inevitably attaches to a deviation from good morals. Reproach and scandal refer more immediately to the nature of the actions than the character of the persons; the former being employed in general matters; the latter mostly in a religious application: it is greatly to the discredit of all heads of public institutions, when they allow of abuses that interfere with the good order of the establishment, or divert it from its original purpose; "Tis the duty of every Christian to be concerned for the reputation or discredit his life may bring on his profession.' ROGERS. • When a man is made up wholly of the dove without the least grain of the serpent in his composition, he becomes ridiculous in many circumstances of his life, and very often discredits his best actions.' ADDISON. In Sparta the slightest intemperance reflected great disgrace on the offender;

And he whose affluence disdain'd a place, Brib'd by a title, makes it a disgrace. BROWN.

In the present age, when the views of men on Christianity and its duties are so much more enlightened than they ever were, it is a reproach to any nation to continue to traffic in the blood of its fellow creatures; The cruelty of Mary's persecution equalled the deeds of those tyrants who have been the reproach to human nature.' ROBERTSON. The blasphemous indecencies of which religious enthusiasts are guilty in the excess of their zeal is a scandal to all soberminded Christians;

His lustful orgies he enlarged
Even to the hill of scandal, by the grove
Of Moloch homicide. MILTON.

INFAMOUS, SCANDALOUS.

Infamous, like infamy (v. Infamy), is applied to both persons and things; scandalous, or causing scandal, only to things: a character is infamous, or a transaction is infamous; but a transaction only is scandalous. Infamous and scandalous are both said of that which is calculated to excite great displeasure in the minds of all who hear it, and to degrade the offenders in the general estimation; but the infamous seems to be that which produces greater publicity, and more general reprehension, than the scandalous, consequently is that which is more serious in its nature, and a greater violation of good morals. Many of the leaders in the French revolution rendered themselves infamous by their violence, their rapine, and their murders; There is no crime more infamous than the violation of truth.' JOHNSON. The trick which was played upon the subscribers to the South Sea Company was a scandalous fraud; It is a very great, though sad and scandalous truth, that rich men are esteemed and honoured, while the ways by which they grow rich are abhorred.' SOUTH.

shunned as something polluted. The infamy of a traitorous proceeding is increased by the addition of ingratitude; the ignominy of a public punishment is increased by the wickedness of the offender; opprobrium sometimes falls upon the innocent, when circumstances seem to convict them of guilt.

Infamy is bestowed by the public voice; it does not belong to one nation or one age, but to every age: the infamy of a base transaction, as the massacre of the Danes in England, or of the Hugonots in France, will be handed down to the latest posterity; The share of infamy that is likely to fall to the lot of each individual in public acts is small indeed.' BURKE, Ignominy is brought on a person by the act of the magistrate the public sentence of the law, and the infliction of that sentence, exposes the name to public scorn; the ignominy, however, seldom extends beyond the individuals who are immediately concerned and narrow his sphere, would fain preserve his name in it: every honest man, however humble his station from being branded with the ignominy of either himself, or any of his family, suffering death on the gallows;

For strength from truth divided, and from just,
Illaudable nought merits but dispraise,
And ignominy. MILTON.

Opprobrium is the judgement passed by the public; it is more silent and even more confined than the infamy and the ignominy; individuals are exposed to it according to the nature of the imputations under which they lie: every good man would be anxious to escape the opprobrium of having forfeited his integrity;

Nor he their outward only with the skins

Of beasts, but inward nakedness much more
Opprobrious, with his robe of righteousness
Arraying, cover'd from his father's sight. MILTON.

INFAMY, IGNOMINY, OPPROBRIUM. Infamy is the opposite to good fame; it consists in an evil report; ignominy, from nomen a name, signifies an ill name, a stained name; opprobrium, a Latin word, compounded of op or ob and probrum, signifies the highest degree of reproach or stain.

The idea of discredit or disgrace in the highest possible degree is common to all these terms: but infamy is that which attaches more to the thing than to the person; ignominy is thrown upon the person; and opprobrium is thrown upon the agent rather than

the action.

TO REVILE, VILIFY.

Revile, from the Latin vilis, signifies to reflect upon a person, or retort upon him that which is vile: to vilify, signifies to make a thing vile, that is, to set it forth as vile.

To revile is a personal act, it is addressed directly to the object of offence, and is addressed for the purpose of making the person vile in his own eyes: to vilify is an indirect attack which serves to make the object appear vile in the eyes of others. Revile is said only of persons, for persons only are reviled; but vilify is said mostly of things, for things are often vilified. To revile is contrary to all Christian duty; it is commonly resorted to by the most worthless, and practised upon the most worthy;

But chief he gloried with licentious stile,

To lash the great, and monarchs to revile. POPE. To vilify is seldom justifiable; for we cannot vilify without using improper language; it is seldom resorted

to but for the gratification of ill nature; 'There is nobody so weak of invention that cannot make some little stories to vilify his enemy.' ADDISON.

REPROACH, CONTUMELY, OBLOQUY. Reproach has the same signification as given under To Blame; contumely, from contumeo, that is, contra tumeo, signifies to swell up against; obloquy from ob and loquor, signifies speaking against or to the disparagement of.

The idea of contemptuous or angry treatment of others is common to all these terms; but reproach is the general, contumely and obloquy are the particular terms. Reproach is either deserved or undeserved; the name of Puritan is applied as a term of reproach to such as affect greater purity than others; the name of Christian is a name of reproach in Turkey; but reproach taken absolutely is always supposed to be undeserved, and to be itself a vice;

Has foul reproach a privilege from heav'n? POPE. Contumely is always undeserved; it is the insolent swelling of a worthless person against merit in distress; our Saviour was exposed to the contumely of the Jews; The royal captives followed in the train, amidst the horrid yells, and frantick dances, and infamous contumelies, of the furies of hell.' BURKE. Obloquy is always supposed to be deserved; it is applicable to those whose conduct has rendered them objects of general censure, and whose name therefore has almost become a reproach. A man who uses his power only to oppress those who are connected with him will naturally and deservedly bring upon himself much obloquy; Reasonable moderation hath freed us from being subject unto that kind of obloquy, whereby as the church of Rome doth, under the colour of love towards those things which lie harmless, maintain extremely most hurtful corruptions; so we peradventure might be upbraided, that under colour of hatred towards those things that are corrupt, we are on the other side as extreme, even against most harmless ordinances.' HOOKER.

REPROACHFUL, ABUSIVE, SCURRILOUS. Reproachful, when applied to the person, signifies full of reproaches; when to the thing, deserving of reproach: abusive is only applied to the person, signifying after the manner of abuse: scurrilous, from scurra a buffoon, is employed as an epithet either for persons or things, signifying using scurrility, or the language of a buffoon. The conduct of a person is reproachful in as much as it provokes or is entitled to the reproaches of others; the language of a person is reproachful when it abounds in reproaches, or partakes of the nature of a reproach: a person is abusive who indulges himself in abuse or abusive language:

and he is scurrilous who adopts scurrility or scurrilous language.

When applied to the same object, whether to the person or to the thing, they rise in sense: the reproachful is less than the abusive, and this than the scurrilous: the reproachful is sometimes warranted by the provocation; but the abusive and scurrilous are always unwarrantable: reproachful language may be consistent with decency and propriety of speech, but when the term is taken absolutely it is generally in the bad sense; Honour teaches a man not to revenge a contumelious or reproachful word, but to be above it.' SOUTH. Abusive and scurrilous language are outrages against the laws of good breeding, if not of morality;

Thus envy pleads a natʼral claim

To persecute the Muse's fame,
Our poets in all times abusive,

From Homer down to Pope inclusive. SWIFT.

'Let your mirth be ever void of all scurrility and biting words to any man.' SIR HENRY SIDNEY. A parent may sometimes find it necessary to address an unruly son in reproachful terms; or one friend may adopt a reproachful tone to another; none however, but the lowest orders of men, and those only when their angry passions are awakened, will descend to abusive or scurrilous language.

TO REPROBATE, CONDEMN.

To reprobate, which is a variation of reproach, is much stronger than to condemn, which bears the same general meaning as given under To Blame; we always condemn when we reprobate, but not vice versa: to reprobate is to condemn in strong and reproachful language. We reprobate all measures which tend to sow discord in society, and to loosen the ties by which men are bound to each other; Simulation (according to my Lord Chesterfield) is by no means to be reprobated as a disguise for chagrin or an engine of wit.' MACKENZIE. We condemn all disrespectful language towards superiors;

I see the right, and I approve it too;

Condemn the wrong, and yet the wrong pursue. TATE. We reprobate only the thing; we condemn the person also any act of disobedience in a child cannot be too strongly reprobated; a person must expect to be condemned when he involves himself in embarrassments through his own imprudence.

ABUSE, INVECTIVE.

Abuse, which from the Latin abutor, signifying to injure by improperly using, is here taken in the metaphorical application for ill-treatment of persons; invective, from the Latin inveho, signifies to bear upon or against. Harsh and unseemly censure is the idea

K

common to these terms; but the former is employed more properly against the person, the latter against the thing.

Abuse is addressed to the individual, and mostly by word of mouth: invective is communicated mostly by writing. Abuse is dictated by anger, which throws off all constraint, and violates all decency invective is dictated by party spirit, or an intemperate warmth of feeling in matters of opinion. Abuse is always resorted to by the vulgar in their private quarrels: invective is the ebullition of zeal and ill-nature in public concerns.

The more rude and ignorant the man, the more liable he is to indulge in abuse; At an entertainment given by Pisistratus to some of his intimates, Thrasippus, a man of violent passion, and inflamed with wine, took some occasion, not recorded, to break out into the most violent abuse and insult.' CUMBERLAND. The more restless and opiniated the partisan, whether in religion or politics, the more ready he is to deal in invective; This is the true way of examining a libel; and when men consider that no man living thinks the better of their heroes and patrons for the panegyric given them, none can think themselves lessened by their invective.' STEELE. We must expect to meet with abuse from the vulgar whom we offend; and if we are in high stations, our conduct will draw forth invective from busybodies whom spleen has converted into oppositionists.

DECLAIM, INVEIGH.

Declaim, in Latin declamo, that is, de and clamo, signifies literally to cry in a set form of words; inveigh is taken in the same sense as given in the preceding article.

To declaim is to speak either for or against a person; declaiming is in all cases a noisy kind of oratory; It is usual for masters to make their boys declaim on both sides of an argument.' SWIFT. To inveigh signifies always to speak against the object; in this latter application public men and public measures are subjects for the declaimer; private individuals afford subjects for inveighing; the former is under the influence of particular opinions or prejudices; the latter is the fruit of personal resentment or displeasure patriots (as they are called) are always declaiming against the conduct of those in power, or the state of the nation; and not unfrequently they profit by the opportunity of indulging their private pique by inveighing against particular members of the government who have disappointed their expectations of advancement. A declaimer is noisy; he is a man of words; he makes long and loud speeches; Tully (was) a good orator, yet no good poet; Sallust, a good historiographer, but no good declaimer.' FOTHERBY. An inveigher is virulent and personal; he enters into private details, and often indulges his malignant feelings under an affected regard for morality; Ill-tempered and extravagant invectives

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against papists, made by men whose persons wanting authority, as much as their speeches do reason, do nothing else but set an edge on our adversaries' sword. JACKSON. Although both these words may be applied to moral objects, yet declamations are more directed towards the thing, and invectives against the person; The grave and the merry have equally thought themselves at liberty to conclude, either with declamatory complaints, or satirical censures of female folly.' JOHNSON.

Scarce were the flocks refresh'd with morning dew,
When Damon stretch'd beneath an olive shade,
And wildly staring upward, thus inveigh'd
Against the conscious gods. DRYDEN.

TO BLAME, REPROVE, REPROACH, UPBRAID, CENSURE, CONDEMN. Blame, in French blamer, probably from the Greek Beßáuua, perfect of the verb Bλánтw to hurt, signifying to deal harshly with; reprove, comes from the Latin reprobo, which signifies the contrary of probo to approve; reproach, in French reprocher, compounded of re and proche, proximus near, signifies to cast back upon a person; upbraid, compounded of up or upon and braid or breed, signifies to hatch against one; censure, in French censure, Latin censura the censorship, or the office of censor; the censor being a Roman magistrate, who took cognizance of the morals and manners of the people, and punished offences against either; condemn, in French condamner, Latin condemno, compounded of con and damno, from damnum a loss or penalty, signifies to sentence to some penalty.

The expression of one's disapprobation of a person, or of that which he has done, is the common idea in the signification of these terms; but to blame expresses less than to reprove. We simply charge with a fault in blaming; but in reproving severity is mixed with the charge. Reproach expresses more than either; it is to blame acrimoniously. We need not hesitate to blame as occasion may require; but it is proper to be cautious how we deal out reproof where the necessity of the case does not fully warrant it; and it is highly culpable to reproach without the most substantial reason.

To blame and reprove are the acts of a superior; to reproach, upbraid, that of an equal: to censure and condemn leave the relative condition of the parties undefined. Masters blame or reprove their servants; parents their children; friends and acquaintances reproach and upbraid each other; persons of all conditions may censure or be censured, condemn or be condemned, according to eircumstances.

Blame and reproof are dealt out on every ordinary occasion; reproach and upbraid respect personal matters, and always that which affects the moral character; censure and condemnation are provoked by faults and misconduct of different descriptions. Every fault, however trivial, may expose a person to

blame, particularly if he perform any office for the vulgar, who are never contented;

Chafe not thyself about the rabble's censure:
They blame or praise, but as one leads the other.

PROWDE.

Intentional errors, however small, seem necessarily to call for reproof, and yet it is a mark of an imperious temper to substitute reproof in the place of admonition, when the latter might possibly answer the purpose; In all terms of reproof, when the sentence appears to arise from personal hatred or passion, it is not then made the cause of mankind, but a misunderstanding between two persons.' STEELE. There is There is nothing which provokes a reproach sooner than ingratitude, although the offender is not entitled to so much notice from the injured person;

The prince replies: "Ah cease, divinely fair, Nor add reproaches to the wounds I bear.' POPE. Mutual upbraidings commonly follow between those who have mutually contributed to their misfortunes;

Have we not known thee, slave! Of all the host, The man who acts the least upbraids the most. POPE. The defective execution of a work is calculated to draw down censure upon its author, particularly if he betray a want of modesty ;

Though ten times worse themselves, you'll frequent view Those who with keenest rage will censure you. PITT. The mistakes of a general, or a minister of state, will provoke condemnation, particularly if his integrity be called in question;

Thus they in mutual accusation spent

The fruitless hours, but neither self-condemning.

MILTON.

Blame, reproof, and upbraiding, are always addressed directly to the individual in person; reproach, censure, and condemnation, are sometimes conveyed through an indirect channel, or not addressed at all to the party who is the object of them. When a master blames his servant, or a parent reproves his child, or one friend upbraids another, he directs his discourse to him to express his disapprobation. A man will always be reproached by his neighbours for the vices he commits, however he may fancy himself screened from their observation; The very regret of being surpassed in any valuable quality, by a person of the same abilities with ourselves, will reproach our own laziness, and even shame us into imitation.' ROGERS. Writers censure each other in their publications;

Men may censure thine (weakness) The gentler, if severely thou exact not More strength from me, than in thyself was found. MILTON. The conduct of individuals is sometimes condemned by the public at large; They who approve my conduct in this particular are much more numerous than those who condemn it.' SPECTATOR.

Blame, reproach, upbraid, and condemn, may be applied to ourselves; reproof and censure are applied to others: we blame ourselves for acts of imprudence; our consciences reproach us for our weaknesses, and upbraid or condemn us for our sins.

REPREHENSION, REPROOF.

Personal blame or censure is implied by both these terms, but the former is much milder than the latter. By reprehension the personal independence is not so sensibly affected as in the case of reproof: people of all ages and stations whose conduct is exposed to the investigation of others are liable to reprehension; but children only or such as are in a subordinate capacity are exposed to reproof. The reprehension amounts to little more than passing an unfavourable sentence upon the conduct of another; When a man feels the reprehension of a friend, seconded by his own. heart, he is easily heated into resentment.' JOHNSON. Reproof adds to the reprehension an unfriendly address to the offender; There is an oblique way of reproof which takes off from the sharpness of it." STEELE. The master of a school may be exposed to the reprehension of the parents for any supposed impropriety: his scholars are subject to his frequent reproof.

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TO CHECK, CHIDE, REPRIMAND,
REPROVE, REBUKE.

Check derives its figurative signification from the check-mate, a movement in the game of chess, whereby one stops one's adversary from making a further move; whence to check signifies to stop the course of thority; chide is in Saxon cidan, probably connected a person, and on this occasion by the exercise of auwith cyldan to scold; reprimand is compounded of the privative syllable repri and mand, in Latin mando to commend, signifying not to commend; reprove, in French reprouver, Latin reprobo, is comnifying to find the contrary of good, that is, to find pounded of the privative syllable re and probo, sigbad, to blame; rebuke is compounded of re and buke, in French bouche the mouth, signifying to stop the mouth.

The idea of expressing one's disapprobation of a person's conduct is common to all these terms.

A person is checked that he may not continue to do what is offensive; he is chidden for what he has done that he may not repeat it: impertinent and forward people require to be checked, that they may not become intolerable;

I hate when vice can bolt her arguments,

And virtue has no tongue to check her pride. MILTON.