natures of the things that he governs; and moreover man being by nature a free, moral agent, and so capable of deviating from his duty, as well as performing it, it is necessary that he should be governed by laws.' SOUTH. BESIDES, EXCEPT. Besides (v. Moreover), which is here taken as a preposition, expresses the idea of addition; except expresses that of exclusion. There were many there besides ourselves; no one except ourselves will be admitted; Besides impiety, discontent carries along with it as its inseparable concomitants, several other sinful passions.' BLAIR. Neither jealousy nor envy can dwell with the Supreme Being. He is a rival to none, he is an enemy to none, except to such as, by rebellion against his laws, seek enmity with him.' BLAIR. UNLESS, EXCEPT. Unless, which is equivalent to if less, if not, or if one fail, is employed only for the particular case; but except has always a reference to some general rule, of which an exception is hereby signified: I shall not do it unless he ask me; no one can enter except those who are provided with tickets; Unless money can be borrowed, trade cannot be carried on.' BLACKSTONE. If a wife continues in the use of her jewels till her husband's death, she shall afterwards retain them against his executors and administrators, and all other persons except creditors.' BLACKSTONE. HOWEVER, YET, NEVERTHELESS, NOTWITHSTANDING. These conjunctions are in grammar termed adversative, because they join sentences together that stand more or less in opposition to each other. However is the most general and indefinite; it serves as a conclusive deduction drawn from the whole. I The truth is however not yet all come out; by which is understood that much of the truth has been told, and much yet remains to be told: so likewise in similar sentences; I am not however of that opinion; where it is implied either that many hold the opinion, or much may be said of it; but be that as it may, am not of that opinion: however you may rely on my assistance to that amount; that is, at all events, let whatever happen, you may rely on so much of my assistance: however, as is obvious from the above examples, connects not only one single proposition, but many propositions either expressed or understood; 'However it is but just sometimes to give the world representation of the bright side of human nature.' HUGHES. Yet, nevertheless, and notwithstanding, are mostly employed to set two specific propositions a either in contrast or direct opposition to each other; the two latter are but species of the former, pointing out the opposition in a more specific manner. There are cases in which yet is peculiarly proper; others in which nevertheless, and others in which notwithstanding, is preferable. Yet bespeaks a simple contrast; Addison was not a good speaker, yet he was an admirable writer; Johnson was a man of uncouth manners, yet he had a good heart and a sound head; He had not that reverence for the queen as might have been expected from a man of his wisdom and breeding; yet he was impertinently solicitous to know Nevertheless and notwithstanding could not in these what her Majesty said of him in private.' CLARENDON. cases have been substituted. Nevertheless and notwithstanding are mostly used to imply effects or conpected to result. He has acted an unworthy part; sequences opposite to what might naturally be exnevertheless I will be a friend to him as far as I can; that is, although he has acted an unworthy part, I will be no less his friend as far as lies in my power; There will always be something that we shall wish to have finished, and be nevertheless unwilling to begin.' JOHNSON. Notwithstanding all I have said, he still persists in his own imprudent conduct, that is, all I have said notwithstanding or not restraining him from it, he still persists. He is still rich notwithstanding his loss; that is, his loss notwithstanding, or not standing in the way of it, he is still rich; Notwithstanding there is such infinite room between man and his Maker for the creative power to exert itself in, it is impossible that it should ever be filled up.' ADDISON. From this resolution of the terms, more than from any specific rule, we may judge of their distinct applications, and clearly perceive that in such cases as those above-cited the conjunctions nevertheless and notwithstanding could not be substituted for each other, nor yet for either: in other cases, however, where the objects are less definitely pointed out, they may be used indifferently. The Jesuits piqued themselves always upon their strict morality, and yet (notwithstanding, or nevertheless) they admitted of many things not altogether consonant with moral principle: you know that these are but tales, yet (notwithstanding, nevertheless) you believe them. ALL, WHOLE. All and whole are derived from the same source, that is, in German all and heil whole or sound, Dutch all, hel, or heel, Saxon al, wal, Danish al, ald, Greek λos, Hebrew bɔ. All respects a number of individuals; whole respects a single body with its components: we have not all, if we have not the whole number; we have not the whole, if we have not all the parts of which it is composed. It is not within the limits of human capacity to take more than a partial survey of all the interesting objects which the whole globe contains. When applied to spiritual objects in a general sense, all is preferred to whole; but when the object is specific, whole is preferable: thus we say, all hope was lost; but, our whole hope rested in this; It will be asked how the drama moves if it is not credited. It is credited with all the credit due to a drama.' JOHNSON. The whole story of the transactions between Edward Harold and the Duke of Normandy is told so differently by ancient writers, that there are few important passages of the English history liable to so great uncertainty.' HUME. ALL, EVERY, EACH. All is collective; every single or individual; each distributive. All and every are universal in their signification; each is restrictive: the former are used in speaking of great numbers; the latter is applicable to small numbers. All men are not born with the same talent, either in degree or kind; but every man has a talent peculiar to himself: a parent divides his property among his children, and gives to each his due share; 'Harold by his marriage broke all measures with the Duke of Normandy.' HUME. Every man's performances, to be rightly estimated, must be compared to the state of the age in which he lived.' JOHNSON. Taken singly and individually, it might be difficult to conceive how each event wrought for good. They must be viewed in their consequences and effects. BLAIR. 6 NUMEROUS, NUMERAL, NUMERICAL. Numerous signifies literally containing a number, and is taken to denote a great many or a great number; numeral and numerical both imply belonging to number. Numeral is applied to a class Numeral is applied to a class of words in grammar, as a numeral adjective, or a numeral noun: numerical is applied to whatever other objects respect number; as a numerical difference, where the difference subsists between any two numbers, or is expressed by numbers. SPECIAL, SPECIFIC, PARTICULAR. Special, in Latin specialis, signifies belonging to the species; particular, belonging to a particle or small part; specific, in Latin specificus, from species a species, and facio to make, signifies making a species. The special is that which comes under the general; the particular is that which comes under the special: hence we speak of a special rule; but a particular case; God claims it as a special part of his prerogative to have the entire disposal of riches.' SOUTH. Particular and specific are both applied to the properties of individuals; but particular is said of the contingent circumstances of things, specific of their inherent properties; every plant has something particular in itself different from others, it is either longer or shorter, weaker or stronger; Every state has a particular principle of happiness, and this principle may in each be carried to a mischievous excess." GOLDSMITH. The specific property of a plant is that which it has in common with its species; The imputation of being a fool is a thing which mankind, of all others, is the most impatient of, it being a blot upon the prime and specific perfection of human nature.' SOUTH. Particular is, therefore, a term adapted to loose discourse; specific is a scientific term which describes things minutely. The same may be said of particularize and specify: we particularize for the sake of information; we specify for the sake of instruction: in describing a man's person and dress we particularize if we mention every thing singly which can be said upon it; in delineating a plan it is necessary to specify time, place, distance, materials, and every thing else which may be connected with the carrying it into execution. Both these terms are employed to express one object; but particular is much more specific than individual; the particular confines us to one object only of many; but individual may be said of any one object among many. A particular object cannot be misunderstood for any other, while it remains particular; but the individual object can never be known from other individual objects, while it remains only individual. Particular is a term used in regard to individuals, and is opposed to the general: individual is a term used in regard to collectives; and is opposed to the whole or that which is divisible into parts; Those particular speeches, which are commonly known by the name of rants, are blemishes in our English tragedy.' ADDISON. To give thee being, I lent ALONE, SOLITARY, LONELY. Alone, compounded of all and one, signifies altogether one, or single; that is, by one's self; solitary, in French solitaire, Latin solitarius, from solus alone, signifies the quality of being alone; lonely, signifies in the manner of alone. Alone marks the state of a person; solitary the quality of a person or thing; lonely the quality of a thing only. A person walks alone, or takes a solitary walk in a lonely place. Whoever likes to be much alone is of a solitary turn; Here we stand alone, As in our form distinct, pre-eminent. YOUNG. Wherever a man can be most and oftenest alone, that is a solitary or lonely place; I would wish no man to deceive himself with opinions which he has not thoroughly reflected upon in his solitary hours.' CUM BERLAND. Within an ancient forest's ample verge There stands a lonely, but a healthful dwelling, Built for convenience and the use of life. RowE. ALSO, LIKEWISE, TOO. Also, compounded of all and so, signifies literally all in the same manner; likewise, compounded of like and wise or manner, signifies in like manner; too, a variation of the numeral two, signifies what may be added or joined to another thing from its similarity. These adverbial expressions obviously convey the same idea of including or classing certain objects together upon a supposed ground of affinity. Also is a more general term, and has a more comprehensive meaning, as it implies a sameness in the whole; 'Let us only think for a little of that reproach of modern times, that gulf of time and fortune, the passion for gaming, which is so often the refuge of the idle sons of pleasure, and often also the last resource of the ruined.' BLAIR. Likewise is more specific and limited in its acceptation; All the duties of a daughter, a sister, a wife, and a mother, may be well performed, though a lady should not be the finest woman at an opera. They are likewise consistent with a moderate share of wit, a plain dress, and a modest air.' STEELE. Too is still more limited than either, and refers only to a single object; Long life is of all others the most general, and seemingly the most innocent object of desire. With respect to this, too, we so frequently err, that it would have been a blessing to many to have had their wish denied.' BLAIR. 6 being but himself; and it is solitary to a brute, when there are no brutes with which it can hold society; The first time we behold the hero (Ulysses), we find him disconsolately sitting on the solitary shore, sighing to return to Ithaca.' WHARTON. Desert conveys the idea of a place made solitary by being shunned, from its unfitness as a place of residence; all deserts are places of such wildness as seems to frighten away almost all inhabitants; A peopled city made a desert place. DRYDEN. Desolate conveys the idea of a place made solitary, or bare of inhabitants, and all traces of habitation, by violent means; every country may become desolate which is exposed to the inroads of a ravaging army; Supporting and supported, polish'd friends TO RECEDE, RETREAT, RETIRE, To recede is to go back; to retreat is to draw back : the former is a simple action, suited to one's convenience; the latter is a particular action, dictated by necessity: we recede by a direct backward movement; we retreat by an indirect backward movement: we recede a few steps in order to observe an object more distinctly; we retreat from the position we have taken, in order to escape danger: whoever can advance can recede; but in general those only retreat whose advance is not free: receding is the act of every one; retreating is peculiarly the act of soldiers, or those who make hostile movements. To retire and withdraw originally signify the same as retreat, that is, draw back or off; but they agree in application mostly with recede: to recede is to go back from a given spot; but to retire and withdraw have respect to the place or the presence of the persons: we may recede on an open plain; but we retire or withdraw from a room, or from some company. In this application withdraw is the more familiar term: retire may likewise be used for an army; but it denotes a much more leisurely action than retreat: a general retreats, by compulsion, from an enemy; but he may retire from an enemy's country when there is no enemy present. Recede, retire, withdraw, and retreat, are also used in a moral application; secede is used only in this sense: a person recedes from his which engagement, is seldom justifiable; or he may recede from his pretensions, which is mostly commendable; We were soon brought to the necessity of receding from our imagined equality with our cousins.' JOHNSON. A person retires from business when he ceases to carry it on any longer; • Retirement from the world's cares and pleasures has been often recommended as useful to repentance.' JOHNSON. A person withdraws from a society either for a time or altogether; A temptation may withdraw for awhile, and return again." SOUTH. As life is religiously considered as a warfare with the world, they are said to retreat from the contest who do not enter into its pleasures; How certain is our ruin, unless we sometimes retreat from this pestilential region (the world of pleasure).' BLAIR. To secede is a public act: men secede from a religious or political body withdraw is a private act; they withdraw themselves as individual members from any society; 'Pisistratus and his sons maintained their usurpations during a period of sixty-eight years, including those of Pisistratus' secessions from Athens.' CUMBERLAND. PRIVACY, RETIREMENT, SECLUSION. Privacy literally denotes the abstract quality of private; but when taken by itself it signifies the state of being private: retirement literally signifies the abstract act of retiring: and seclusion that of secluding one's self: but retirement by itself frequently denotes a state of being retired, or a place of retirement; seclusion, a state of being secluded: hence we say a person lives in privacy, in retirement, in seclusion: privacy is opposed to publicity; he who lives in privacy, therefore, is one who follows no public line, who lives so as to be little known; Fly with me to some safe, some sacred privacy. ROWE. Retirement is opposed to openness or freedom of access; he, therefore, who lives in retirement withdraws from the society of others, he lives by himself; In our retirements every thing disposes us to be serious.' ADDISON. Seclusion is the excess of retirement; he who lives in seclusion bars all access to himself; he shuts himself from the world; What can thy imag'ry of sorrow mean? Privacy is most suitable for such as are in circumstances of humiliation, whether from their misfortune or their fault: retirement is peculiarly agreeable to those who are of a reflective turn; but seclusion is chosen only by those who labour under some strong affection of the mind, whether of a religious or phy sical nature. TO ABDICATE, DESERT. The following celebrated speech of Lord Somers, in 1688, on King James's vacating the throne, may be admitted as a happy elucidation of these two important words; but I am not inclined to think that they come sufficiently close in signification to render any comparison necessary. "What is appointed me to speak to is your Lordships' first amendment by which the word abdicated in the Commons' vote is changed into the word deserted, and I am to acquaint your Lordships what some of the grounds are that induced the Commons to insist on the word abdicated, and not to agree to your amendment. "The first reason your Lordships are pleased to deliver for your changing the word is, that the word abdicated your Lordships do not find is a word known. to the common law of England, and therefore ought not to be used. The next is that the common application of the word amounts to a voluntary express renunciation, which is not in this case, nor will follow from the premises. "My Lords, as to the first of these reasons, if it be an objection that the word abdicated hath not a known sense in the common law of England, there is the same objection against the word deserted; so that your Lordships' first reason hath the same force against your own amendment, as against the term used by the Commons. "The words are both Latin words, and used in the best authors, and both of a known signification; their meaning is very well understood, though it be true their meaning is not the same. The word abdicate doth naturally and properly signify, entirely to renounce, throw off, disown, relinquish any thing or person, so as to have no further to do with it; and that whether it be done by express words or in writing (which is the sense your Lordships put upon it, and which is properly called resignation or cession), or by doing such acts as are inconsistent with the holding and retaining of the thing, which the Commons take to be the present case, and therefore make choice of the word abdicate, as that which they thought did above all others express that meaning. And in this latter sense it is taken by others; and that this is the true signification of the word I shall show your Lordships out of the best authors. The first I shall mention is Grotius, De Jure Belli et Pacis, 1. 2, c. 4, § 4. Venit enim hoc non ex jure civili, sed ex jure naturali, quo quisque suum potest abdicare, et ex naturali præsumptione, quâ voluisse quis creditur quod sufficienter significavit. And then he goes on: Recusari hæreditas, non tantum verbis sed etiam re, potest, et quovis indicio voluntatis. "Another instance which I shall mention, to show that for abdicating a thing it is sufficient to do an act which is inconsistent with retaining it, though there be nothing of express renunciation, is out of Calvin's Lexicon Juridicum, where he says, Generum abdicat qui sponsam repudiat. Here is an abdication without express words, but it is by doing such an act as doth sufficiently signify his purpose. "The next author I shall quote is Brissonius, De Verborum Significatione, who hath this passage: Homo liber qui seipsum vendit abdicat se statu suo. That is, he who sells himself hath thereby done such an act as cannot consist with his former state of freedom, and is thereby said properly se abdicasse statu suo. "Budæus, in his Commentaries Ad Legem Secundam de Origine Juris, expounds the words in the same sense. Abdicare se magistratu est idem quod abire penitus magistratu. He that goes out of his office of magistracy, let it be in what manner he will, has abdicated the magistracy. "And Grotius, in his book de Jure Belli et Pacis, 1. 1, c. 4, § 9, seems to expound the word abdicare by manifeste habere pro derelicto; that is, he who hath abdicated any thing hath so far relinquished it, that he hath no right of return to it. And that is the sense the Commons put upon the word. It is an entire alienation of the thing abdicated, and so stands in opposition to dicare. Dicat qui proprium aliquot facit, abdicat qui alienat; so says Pralejus in his so says Pralejus in his Lexicon Juris. It is therefore insisted on as the proper word by the Commons. "But the word deserted (which is the word used in the amendment made by your Lordships) hath not only a very doubtful signification, but in the common acceptance both of the civil and canon law, doth signify only a bare withdrawing, a temporary quitting of a thing, and neglect only, which leaveth the party at liberty of returning to it again. Desertum pro neglecto, says Spigelius in his Lexicon. But the difference between deserere and derelinquere is expressly laid down by Bartolus on the 8th law of the 58th title of the 11th book of the Code, and his words are these: Nota diligenter ex hac lege, quod aliud est agrum deserere, aliud derelinquere; qui enim derelinquit ipsum ex pœnitentiâ non revocare, sed qui deserit, intra biennium potest. "Whereby it appears, my lords, that is called desertion which is temporary and relievable; that is called dereliction where there is no power or right to return. "So in the best Latin authors, and in the civil law, deserere exercitum is used to signify soldiers leaving their colours; and in the canon law to desert a benefice signifies no more than to be a non-resident. "In both cases the party hath not only a right of returning, but is bound to return again; which, my Lords, as the Commons do not take to be the present case, so they cannot think that your Lordships do, because it is expressly said, in one of your reasons given in defence of the last amendment, that your Lordships have been and are willing to secure the nation against the return of King James, which your Lordships would not in justice do, if you did look upon it to be no more than a negligent withdrawing, which leaveth a liberty to the party to return. "For which reasons, my Lords, the Commons cannot agree to the first amendment, to insert the word deserted instead of abdicated; because it doth not in any sort come up to their sense of the thing, so they apprehend it doth not reach your Lordships' meaning as it is expressed in your reasons, whereas they look upon the word abdicated to express properly what is to be inferred from that part of the vote to which your Lordships have agreed, viz. That King James II. by going about to subvert the constitution, and by breaking the original contract between king and people, and by violating the fundamental laws, and withdrawing himself out of the kingdom, hath thereby renounced to be a king according to the con stitution.' By avowing to govern according to a despotic power unknown to the constitution, and inconsistent therewith, he hath renounced to be a king according to the law; such a king as he swore to be at the coronation; such a king to whom the allegiance of an English subject is due; and hath set up another kind of dominion; which is to all intents an abdication or abandoning of his legal title as fully as if it had been done by express words. "And, my Lords, for these reasons the Commons do insist upon the word abdicated, and cannot agree to the word deserted." Without all this learned verbosity it will be obvious to every person that the two words are widely distinct from each other: abdication being a pure act of discretion for which a man is answerable to himself only; but desertion an act which involves more or less a breach of moral obligation. TO DISMISS, DISCHARGE, DISCARD. Dismiss, in Latin dimissus, participle of dimitto, compounded of di and mitto, signifies to send asunder or away; discharge, signifies to release from a charge; discard, in Spanish descartar, compounded of des and cartar, signifies to lay cards out or aside, to cast them off. The idea of removing to a distance is included in all these terms; but with various collateral circumstances. Dismiss is the general term; discharge and discard are modes of dismissing: dismiss is applicable to persons of all stations, but is used more particularly for the higher orders: discharge on the other hand is confined to those in a subordinate station. A clerk, or an officer, or a minister, is dismissed; In order to an accommodation, they agreed upon this preliminary, that each of them should immediately dismiss his privy counsellor.' ADDISON. A menial servant or a soldier is discharged; Mr. Pope's errands were so frequent and frivolous that the footmen in time. avoided and neglected him, and the Earl of Oxford discharged some of his servants for their obstinate refusal of his messages.' JOHNSON. Neither dismiss nor discharge define the motive of the action; they are used indifferently for that which is voluntary, or the contrary: discard, on the contrary, always marks a dismissal that is not agreeable to the party discarded. A person may request to be dismissed or discharged, but never to be discarded. The dismissal or discharge frees a person from the obligation or necessity of performing a certain duty; Dismiss the people then, and give command With strong repast to hearten every band. POPE. The discarding throws him out of a desirable rank or station; I am so great a lover of whatever is French, that I lately discarded an humble admirer because he neither spoke that tongue nor drank claret.' BUDGELL. They are all applied to things in the moral sense, and with the same distinction: we are said to dismiss our |