tion to, and sometimes in conjunction with, the sentiment of benevolence. The sensibility in which these pleasures and pains originate, strange to say, has no specific name in any language of Europe, a striking proof, among many others, how little the language of every-day life is adapted to the purposes of scientific inquiry. We shall call this sensibility the sentiment of Self-comparison. The pains and pleasures to be referred to this sentiment are, pains of Inferiority and pleasures of Superiority, which pleasures give rise to a Desire, commonly called the Love of Superiority.

Each individual suffers pain, in a greater or less degree, from perceiving himself to be inferior to those about him, whether in knowledge, strength, ability in general, natural or acquired, agreeable qualities, wealth, or, in fact, any one particular in which it is possible for one man to be superior to another. According to the judgment which he forms of his own relative capacity, and according to the position in which he stands, each individual selects some point or points, in which he thinks himself able to excel, and some persons over whom he thinks himself able to triumph; and he consoles himself for the inferiority which he is constrained to admit upon numerous other points, and as respects numerous other individuals, by the enjoyment, or the anticipation of superiority on some point, over somebody. Nor is this sentiment excited only by a comparison between ourselves and other men. We compare

ourselves with other animals, and even with inanimate objects, and accordingly as we find ourselves

superior or inferior, we derive pleasure or pain from the comparison.

24. With respect to this sentiment, as with respect to every other, habit and the apparent possibility or impossibility of its gratification have a very powerful influence. As regards those whose superiority over us is unquestionable and irreversible, or whose superiority we have been taught from early childhood to regard as unquestionable and irreversible, the pain of inferiority is felt in a very slight degree, assuming the form of Embarrassment or Bashfulness; or it may be wholly superseded, and displaced by a pleasure of admiration. It is only with respect to those whom we have been accustomed to regard as our equals, or inferiors, that this sentiment exercises its full force. Hence the hate with which rising talent or rising genius is regarded; hence the dislike of new men not less on the part of those from among whom they have risen, than on the part of those among whom they have placed themselves.

It is in this sentiment that Pride and Vanity have their origin. Pride is a feeling of superiority exhibited in a man's general manners and bearing, by a distance, reserve, and haughtiness towards others, as though he were a superior being to them. Vanity is the same feeling exhibited in words or actions by a constant display of one's self, and a constant celebration of one's own excellence. Pride and vanity both inflict pain by trenching upon the love of superiority in others; whereas Modesty and Humility flatter the love of superiority in others, and give them pleasure; whence they are pronounced good and

amiable qualities; that is to say, qualities that give pleasure, and which tend to excite a feeling of benevolence towards those who exhibit them.

25. Good manners, which have been very properly called the "lesser morals," consist, in a great measure, in paying deference and respect to others,

thus gratifying in them the sentiment of selfcomparison, and so affording them pleasure. This may be done either from benevolent or selfish motives. In the former case, it is called gentleness, Politeness, good breeding; in the latter case it is called Flattery; or when it is excessive, and plainly intended to secure some benefit to ourselves, through the agency of the person flattered, and in consequence of his benevolence towards us excited by means of it, it is stigmatized as Sycophancy. The proverbial power of flattery indicates the great and general force of that sentiment to which it is addressed.

Those persons who are most universally popular, that is, who are regarded with the most general favor, and who have the fewest enemies, are those over whom the sentiment of benevolence, either from their original constitution, their education, or their position, exercises influence enough to make them uniformly polite and obliging in little matters; who enjoy a good flow of spirits, that is to say, a succession of pleasurable ideas, which they have the power of communicating to others; whose talents are but ordinary, though their accomplishments are considerable; and over whom the love of superiority exercises but a moderate degree of force. These are what are

commonly called good, amiable, agreeable, pleasant persons. They are general favorites; but they never become objects of that enthusiastic love of which admiration is an essential ingredient; nor do they often perform distinguished acts of virtue.

26. The love of superiority seeks and finds its gratification in a vast variety of ways. It is this sentiment combined with certain pleasures of activity, that gives a zest to hunting, fishing, war, and all the numerous games, whether of skill or chance, in which men so generally delight, and the object in all which is, to conquer, subdue, or excel.

It is this sentiment upon which depends the distribution of men into ranks and orders; and hence it is that the most trifling circumstance, a title, a place, a wreath of leaves, a ribbon, a spangle, may come to be regarded as a matter of the utmost importance, if it only be converted into a mark of superiority. It is this sentiment, also, which makes fame, applause, glory, reputation, such objects of pursuit.

27. But this sentiment finds, perhaps, its fullest and most complete gratification in the power of commanding and controlling the actions of others. It is to the love of superiority that government owes its origin; for though it be true that government is of such obvious utility, and even necessity, that both the benevolent and the selfish motives unite to induce men to submit to it; yet government existed before its utility was ever thought of; and its utility only became known in consequence of its prior establishment. That desire of authority, distinction, and respect, which is displayed by the head of every

family, - at least by every good head of a family, for mere tenderness and affection uniformly degenerate into the most fatal indulgence, leads to the extension of that authority over neighbouring families, over tribes, over nations. All government is originally monarchic in its character. Projects for the distribution and the division of power, aristocratic and democratic forms of government, are the contrivances of later times; originating, however, in that same sentiment, which gives rise to the original monarchy; that sentiment, namely, which makes inferiority painful, and superiority pleasurable.*

28. There is, however, a sort of power, much more attainable by men in general, than political power, to wit, the power which the possession of wealth bestows; and this power, accordingly, is a much more universal object of pursuit.

Wealth is the possession of the means of enjoying many pleasures, and of escaping many pains; and money, which is the representative of wealth, is, therefore, sought from a great variety of motives, that is to say, through the impulse of a great variety of pains and desires. But after all, it is the desire of superiority which is the great and permanent motive for the accumulation of money; a motive which continues to operate after all others have lost their force; and which grows stronger by indulgence, till the last moment of life. Hence it happens that in communities in which the desire of superiority is most fully brought into play, countries, for in

*This idea will be pursued and developed in the Theory of Politics.