in ditches, brooks, &c., especially near the sea and in saline soils. Its leaves are dark green and smooth, its petals involute at the tip. The wild plant, also called SMALLAGE, has a stem about two feet high, a tapering slender root, a penetrating offensive odour, a bitterish acrid taste, and almost poisonous qualities. By cultivation, it is so much changed that its taste becomes agreeably sweetish and aromatic, whilst either the leaf-stalks much increase in thickness, or the root swells in a turnip-like manner. These parts, blanched, are much used as a salad, or to impart flavour to soups, &c., and sometimes as a boiled vegetable. They contain sugar, mucilage, starch, and a substance resembling manna-sugar, which acts as a stimulant, particularly on the urinogenital organs, so that a very free and frequent indulgence in the use of C. cannot, in ordinary circumstances, be altogether favourable to health. Two principal varieties of C. are cultivated, that most common in Britain having long thick leafstalks, which are more or less tubular, sometimes almost solid, and, after blanching, either white or more or less tinged with red; whilst the other, called TURNIP-ROOTED C., or CELERIAC, is chiefly remarkable for its swollen turnip-like root, and is in most general cultivation on the continent of Europe. The 'red' varieties of C. are esteemed rather more hardy than the white.' The blanching of the leaf-stalks is generally accomplished by drawing up earth to the plants, which are transplanted from the seed-bed into richly manured trenches; and as they grow, the trenches are filled up, and the earth finally raised into ridges, above which little more than the tops of the leaves appear. C. is thus obtained for use throughout the winter. In the northern parts of Britain, the seed is generally sown on a hotbed. C. seed is often used for flavouring, when the leaf-stalks cannot be obtained. -Another species of C. (Apium australe) grows abundantly in wet places on the shore about Cape Horn and in Staten Island. It is a large, hardy, and luxuriant plant, and is described as wholesome and very palatable, nearly equal in its wild state to our garden-celery. It seems well worthy of the attention of horticulturists.

CELESTINE, a mineral bearing the same relation to strontia (q. v.) that heavy spar bears to baryta. It is essentially sulphate of strontia (StOSO,), with occasional admixture of sulphate of baryta, carbonate of lime, oxide of iron, &c., in small proportions. It much resembles heavy spar, but is not quite equal to it in specific gravity; is usually blue, often of a very beautiful indigo-blue; sometimes colourless, more rarely reddish or yellowish. Its crystallisation is rhombic, like that of heavy spar. Most beautiful specimens of crystallised C. are found in Sicily. C. derives its name from its colour. It is used as a source of strontia.

CE'LESTINES, an order of hermits of St Damianus, founded by Peter de Morrone about 1264, and confirmed as a monkish order by Urban IV. in 1264 and 1274. They called themselves C. when their founder ascended the papal chair under the name of Celestine V. They are regarded as a branch of the great order of St Benedict, whose rule they follow; they wear a white garment with black hood and scapulary, and live a purely contemplative life. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the order rapidly spread through France, Italy, and Germany, but subsequently decayed. The French C. were secularised by order of Pope Pius VI. in 1776-1778; so also were the Neapolitan Celestines. In the present day, the order is almost extinct.

CE'LIBACY, from Lat. calebs, unmarried. Notwithstanding the divine commendation of marriage

given in the Jewish Scriptures (Gen. i. 28), the opinion had become prevalent, even before the time of Christ, that C. was favourable to an intimate union with God. This notion took its origin in the wide-spread philosophy of a good and an evil principle. The body, consisting of matter, the seat of evil, was looked upon as the prison of the pure soul, which was thought to be defiled by bodily enjoyments. Among the Jewish sect of the Essenes, accordingly, a life of C. was held to be the chic! road to sanctity. These ascetic views naturally led, in the first place, to the disapproval of second marriages. While, therefore, in the first Christian churches, every one was left at liberty to marry or not as he thought fit, the objection to those who married a second time had become so gene rally spread, that the Apostle Paul saw occasion to counsel such Christian converts as were in widow. hood to remain so.

By the 2d c., however, the unmarried life gere rally had begun to be extolled, and to be held necessary for a life of sanctity, although several, st least, of the apostles themselves had been married Two passages of Scripture (1 Cor. vii. and Rev. xiv. 4 were specially cited as proving that C. was the genuine condition of a Christian; and with the platonising Fathers of the 2d and 3d centuries, the unmarried of both sexes were held as standing higher than the married. Accordingly, although there was no express law against the marriage of the clergy, many, especially of the bishops, remained unmarried; a second marriage was, in their case, already strictly prohibited.

As the bishops of Rome rose in consideration, and gradually developed a firmer church government, they called upon all who belonged to the clerical order to live for the church alone, and not marry. This requirement met with constant resistance; still, it became more and more the custom, in the 4th c., for the higher clergy to refrain from marriage, and from them it went over to the lower orders and to the monks. Provincial synods now began expressly to interdict the clergy from marry. ing. The council of Tours (566) suspended for a year all secular priests and deacons who were found with their wives; and the Emperor Justinian by an edict declared all children born to a clergyman, after ordination, to be illegitimate, and incapable of inheritance. There were still, however, many married priests who resisted the law, and found encouragement in the opposition which the Greek Church made to that of Rome in this matter of celibacy. The council held at Constantinople in 692, declared, in opposition to the Church of Rome, I that priests and deacons might live with their wives as the laity do, according to the ancient custom and ordinance of the apostles. The orthodox Greek Church has continued to adhere to this decision. before ordination, and live in marriage after it; Priests and deacons in that church may marry but they are not allowed to marry a second time. However, only a priest living in C. can be chosen as bishop or patriarch.

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The Church of Rome continued its endeavours to enforce the law of C.; though, for several centuries, they were attended with only partial success. There still continued to be numbers of priests with wives, although the councils were always issuing orders against them. Popes Leo IX. (1048-1054) and Nicolas II. (1058-1061) interdicted all priests that had wives or concubines from the exercise of any spiritual function, on pain of excommunication. Alexander II. (1061-1073) decreed excommunica tion against all who should attend a mass celebrated | by a priest having a wife or concubine. This decision was renewed by Gregory VII. in a council held at

Rome in 1074, and a decretal was issued that every layman who should receive the communion from the hands of a married priest should be excommunicated, and that every priest who married or lived in concubinage, should be deposed. The decree met with the most violent opposition in all countries; but Gregory succeeded in carrying it out with the greatest rigour; and though individual instances of married priests were still to be found in the 12th and 13th centuries, the C. of the Roman Catholic clergy was established, and has since continued both in theory and practice.

The violence thus done to human nature did not fail to avenge itself in those rude times. The licentiousness and corruption of the priests and monks became in many cases boundless, and it was in vain that strict individuals, as well as councils, strove against it. The immorality and debasement of the clergy became a reproach and by-word in the mouth of the people, and gave a powerful impulse to the religious movement that began in the 16th century. The leading Reformers declared against the C. of the clergy as unfounded in Scripture, and contrary to the natural ordinance of God, and Luther set the example of marrying. This was not without effect on the Roman Catholic clergy, and the question of the abolition of C. was raised at the council of Trent (1563). But the majority of voices decided that God would not withhold the gift of chastity from those that rightly prayed for it, and the rule of C. was thus finally and for ever imposed on the ministers of the Roman Catholic Church. Those who have only received the lower kinds of consecration may marry on resigning their office. For all grades above a subdeacon, a papal dispensation is necessary. A priest that marries incurs excommunication, and is incapable of any spiritual function. If a married man wishes to become a priest, he receives consecration only on condition that he separate from his wife, and that she of her free will consent to the separation and enter a religious order, or take the vow of chastity. The priests of the united Græco-Catholic congregations in Rome have received permission from the popes to continue in marriage, if entered into before consecration, but on condition of always living apart from their wives three days before they celebrate mass.

Notwithstanding these decisions, the contest against clerical C. has again and again been resumed, in recent times, both within and without the Roman Catholic Church. In fact, all attempts at innovation within the bosom of Catholicism, connect themselves with the attack on C., the abolition of which would deeply affect the constitution and position of that church. So far back as 1817, the Catholic Faculty of Tübingen expressed the opinion that compulsory C. was one of the chief causes of the want of Catholic ministers. In 1826, the Catholic clergy of Silesia put in petitions to the bishop for the abolition of C.; and unions were afterwards formed in Baden, Würtemberg, Bavaria, Silesia, and Rhenish Prussia, which, along with alterations in the doctrines and ritual of the Romish Church, combined attacks on the prohibition of marriage to the clergy. A work was also published, entitled The Introduction of Compulsory Celibacy among the Christian Priesthood, and its Consequences (Altenb. 1828, new ed. 1845), which excited great attention. At last the abolition of the law came to be discussed in the legislatures of Baden, Saxony, and other countries. The church claimed this subject as belonging exclusively to her jurisdiction, and not to that of the state; and in Würtemberg the clergy induced the government to suppress the anti-celibacy society; but this only made their opponents in the press the more zealous. In

France, also, the question, about 1829, was eagerly discussed. And in Spain, the Academy of Ecclesiastical Science took the subject into consideration in a meeting held in 1842; while the Portuguese Chambers had previously, in 1835, discussed it, though without result. The same took place in Brazil, about 1827.

During the commotions of 1848, the subject was again brought into prominence in Germany. The German Catholics (q. v.) had already abolished C.; and a general measure was called for in the Frankfort parliament, in the Prussian Assembly, and in the press. In Austria, also, voices were raised against it; but here the state took the side of the pope, who, in a bull of 1847, had added fresh stringency to the rule of C., and condemned its infringement. See BACHELOR.

CELL (Lat. cella, from celo, to conceal). The Latin word had nearly all the significations which we attach to the English one, and a good many besides which we have not borrowed. For example, the whole space within the walls of an ancient temple was called the cella. But the interior was frequently divided into several cellæ, in which case each C. took the name of the deity whose statue it contained, and was called the C. of Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, and the like. In these cases, the word approached to its general meaning, which, with the Romans as with us, was that of a store-room, or small apartment where objects of any kind were stowed away. In modern architecture, the term Vaulting C. signifies the hollow space between the principal ribs of a vaulted roof.

Hanover.

CE'LLÉ, or ZELL, a town of Hanover, on the left bank of the Aller, which at this point becomes navigable, 23 miles north-east of the city of It is situated in the midst of a sandy plain, well built, and has a palace with a garden, in which Matilda, sister of George III., is buried. The inhabitants are very Pop. (1871) 16,147. industrious. hosiery, tobacco, wafers, soap, &c. An active commerce is also carried on by the Aller, and by railway.

The chief manufactures are linen,

CELLI'NI, BENVENUTO, a celebrated Italian gold-worker, sculptor, founder, and medailleur, remarkable not only for his skill as an artist, but also for his checkered life, was born at Florence in the year 1500, and first displayed skill as a chaser and gold-worker. His autobiography is a remarkably curious and interesting work, presenting us with a complete picture of the author's life and character; his activity, his extraordinary weaknesses, the impetuosity of his passions, the perilous circumstances in which his quarrelsome disposition placed him (for C. thought nothing of committing manslaughter in a moment of rage), and the ludicrous vanity and credulity which are never absent from him. The book is also of great value in a historico-social point of view, but does not impress us favourably in regard either to the personal or social morals of the time.

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At an early period, having been banished from Florence in consequence of an affray,' C. went to Rome, where he was employed by many distinguished patrons of art, but afterwards was allowed to return to Florence. Another affray' compelled him to flee to Rome a second time, where he secured the favour of Clement VII. C., by his own account, was as great in arms as in art; he declares that it was himself who killed the Constable Bourbon and the Prince of Orange at the siege of Rome. His reckless conduct for some years compelled his constant shifting between Rome and Florence, Mantua, and Naples. In 1537 he went to the court of France, where he was very honourably received. Illness, however, induced him to return yet once more to

Rome, where he had the misfortune to be imprisoned on a charge of plundering the treasures in the castle of St Angelo during the siege of Rome. At length he was liberated, through the intercession of the Cardinal of Ferrara, for whom he executed, out of gratitude, a fine cup, and various other works. He now accompanied his deliverer to France, and entered the service of Francis I.; but having incurred the displeasure of the ruling favourite, Madame d'Estampes, he returned to Florence-not, however, until, as usual, he had settled some matters with his 'sword-where, under the patronage of Cosmo de' Medici, he executed several fine works in metal and marble among them, the celebrated bronze group of Perseus with the Head of Medusa,' which now decorates the market-place in Florence. Among other preserved works of C., the splendid shield in Windsor Castle may be noticed. In his 58th year, he commenced writing his autobiography, and died in 1570 or 1572.

CELLS, in Physiology.-I. ANIMAL CELLS.-On examining, under a high magnifying power, any of the constituents of the animal body, we perceive that the smallest parts which appear to the naked eye as fibres, tubes, &c., are not ultimate elements in respect to form (morphotic elements), but that they contain and are built up of certain extremely minute particles, which differ in different organs, but always have a similar appearance in the same organs. By far the most important of these microscopic forms, which are known by histologists as simple elementary parts,' are the C., which not only form the starting-point of every animal and vegetable organism (the ovum in either kingdom of nature being simply a cell), but also either as C., or after having undergone certain modifications which will be presently describedmake up the tissues and organs of the perfect animal. Indeed, some of the lowest plants (red snow, gory dew), and of the simplest forms of animal life (GREGORINE, &c., q. v.), appear to consist of a single cell (see fig. 1).

While in plants the elementary parts generally unite directly with one another, in animals they are usually combined by an interstitial substance, which may be either solid or fluid, and is always derived from the blood or general nutrient fluid. If this interstitial substance take a part in the formation of the C., it is called a cytoblastema or a blastema, from kutos, a cell or vesicle, and blastema, germsubstance; if it has nothing to do with their main tenance, it is called the matrix. The cytoblastema is usually fluid, as in the blood, chyle, &c. ; while the matrix is solid, as in cartilage, bone, &c.

In every cell, we can distinguish, if we use sufficiently high magnifying powers, a membranous envelope, known as the cell-wall or membrane, and certain contents. The latter are fluid or gelatinous, and besides containing particles or granules, usually exhibit a peculiar rounded body, the nucleus; which, again, contains in its interior a fluid and a still smaller corpuscle, the nucleolus.

forms may be mentioned: a, the polygonal, as in pavement epithelium, or the pigment of the eye; b, the conical or pyramidal, as in ciliated epithelium; c, the cylindrical, as in cylinder epithelium; d, the fusiform, or spindle-shaped, as in contractile fibre-C.; e, the squamous, as epidermic scales; and f, the caudate, polar, or stellate, as the C. in the gray nervous tissue (see fig. 2).

With regard to size, the largest animal C.-excepting the unicellular organisms are the yolk-C. of the ova of birds and amphibia, while the blood-C. of certain animals may be taken as representing the smallest cells. Average C. range from 0-005 to 0-01 of a line in diameter.

The cell-membrane is usually transparent and colourless, mostly smooth, and so thin as to exhibit only a single contour, rarely of any measurable thickness. No traces of structure can be detected in it. The granular appearance which the membrane occasionally presents, is due to projections depending on granules lying on the inside; and it vanishes on the addition of water, which causes the cell to be distended by endosmosis. See OSMOTIC ACTION.

C. which contain only fluid are rare (fat-C., blood-C.); generally, besides fluid, they contain elementary granules and vesicles, and sometimes crystals. As a general rule, the number of these morphotic elements increases with the age of the cell; sometimes, however, this is not apparent, in consequence of their being grouped in a single mass around the nucleus.

The nucleus is usually spherical or lenticular, transparent, and either colourless or yellowish, and ranges from 0002 to 0·004 of a line in diameter. All nuclei are vesicles, as was originally maintained, in 1841, by Schwann (Microscopical Researches into the Accordance in the Structure and Growth of Animals and Plants, Sydenham Society's translation, 1847, p. 173), who must be regarded as the

Fig. 3.

The contents of the nucleus usually consist, with the exception of the nucleolus, of a limpid or slightly yellowish fluid, from which water and acetic acid precipitate granular matter. In general, only one nucleus exists in each cell, except when it is multiplying (a process which we shall presently explain); occasionally, however, we meet with several nuclei --four, ten, or even twenty (see fig. 3). The nucleolus

is

a, cells with a single nucleus; round, sharply defined,

b, a cell with two nuclei.

be almost immeasurable.

and often so small as to Nucleoli are found in

most nuclei so long as the latter are still young, and in many during their whole existence. As,

Our knowledge of the chemical composition of C. is very imperfect. That the cell-membrane is a protein substance (q. v.)-at all events in young C.-is obvious from its solubility in acetic acid and in dilute caustic alkalies; and the membrane of the nucleus seems to have a similar composition; while there are chemical reasons for believing that the nucleolus is composed of fat. In the contents of most C. we usually find such substances as occur in solution in the cytoblastema-viz., water, albumen, fat, extractive matters, and salts; and in the C. of secreting organs, as, for instance, the liver and kidneys, we find the special secretions of those glands; in the blood-C., we find hæmatocrystalline, &c.

There are two perfectly distinct ways in which C. can be generated: they may be developed independently of other C. in a plastic fluid (the cytoblastema); or they may be developed from preexisting C. by cell-multiplication, the existing C. either producing secondary C. within themselves, or multiplying by division. In both these latter kinds of cell-development, the nucleus seems to be the centre of development of the young cells.

In order that free or independent cell-development shall take place, we must have a cytoblastema containing protein substances (probably fibrin), fat, and certain salts (especially phosphates) in solution; and very possibly the presence of the particles of pre-existing C. may also be necessary, in which case free cell-development ceases to exist. The chyle and lymph corpuscles may be mentioned as examples of this mode of cell-formation. The steps of the process are not very clearly made out, but we know that the nuclei are first formed, and that the cell-membranes are developed around them. Free cell-development is far less common in man and the higher animals than cell-multiplication, and, we believe, never occurs in the vegetable kingdom. All pathological cell-formations-the C. in pus (q. v.), and in other morbid exudations-come, however, under this head.

The development of C. within other C. is of very common occurrence. An original or parent cell produces two or more secondary or daughter C., and the process of formation is said to be

separated, and the cavity of the cell subdivided; e, a continuation of the same process, with cleavage in a direction transverse to the first, so as to form a cluster of four C.; and f, g, h, the production of a longitudinal series of C., so as to produce filaments, by continuous cleavage in the same direction. The mode in which the multiplication of the nucleus takes place cannot be definitely made out in all cases, but when clear observation is possible, the nucleoli first divide into two, and then separate.

A multiplication of C. by division has been proved to take place in the red blood-C. of the embryos of birds and mammals, and in the first colourless blood-C. of the tadpole, and very probably occurs extensively in many embryonic and adult tissues, in which a self-multiplication of C. is certain, but where no parent C. with secondary C. can be detected. În fig. 5 are shewn the blood-C. of the

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Fig. 5.

Blood-corpuscles of the Chick, in the act of division.

chick dividing in this manner. In this and similar cases we have an elongation of the cell, and the single nucleus becomes divided into two; the cell then suffers constriction in the middle, which proceeds till it finally separates into two parts, each of which contains a nucleus. This variety of cellformation affords a good illustration of the doubt and difficulty connected with this class of investigations. It was altogether unknown to Schwann when he published his great work in 1839, and was first noticed and described by Remak in 1841, who, however, subsequently retracted his published view, and did not again advocate it till Kölliker confirmed his observation, and declared it to be correct.

No satisfactory theory has been propounded with the view of explaining the development of cells. Schwann compares the formation of C. with that of crystals, but it must be recollected that the molecular attraction concerned in the formation of