CARPENTRY. toothed panel-saw; for making an incision of a given depth, and for cutting small pieces across the fibre, the tenon-saw, the sash-saw, or dovetail-saw is used. These are thin saws, stiffened by a strong piece of metal at the back to prevent crippling. When a curved cut is to be made, a very narrow saw without a back, called a compass-saw or a keyhole-saw, is used. The general name for these is turning-saws; they have their plates thin and narrow towards the bottom, and each succeeding tooth finer, and the teeth are not bent on contrary sides of the plate for clearing, as in broad saws. The surface of wood is smoothed by planing. According to the work, different kinds of planes are used: the jack-plane, which is large and rough, for taking away the rough of the saw; the trying-plane, for bringing the surface perfectly level and true, or the long-plane for the same purpose, where the work is of great length, as for the joining edges of long boards to be glued together. The smoothing plane, which is much smaller than these, gives the smooth finished surface. The spoke-shave, a sort of plane with a double handle, is used for paring and smoothing rounded work. Ornamental mouldings are cut by means of moulding-planes, which have their cutting edges curved to the required pattern. A good stock of these is one of the most expensive items of the toolchest. The paring of wood, and the cutting of rectangular or prismatic cavities, notches, &c., are done by means of chisels. Those for cutting across the fibre are called firmers or paring-chisels; those for cutting deep and narrow cavities, mortise-chisels, which are made very thick and narrow, and fitted in the handles with a strong flange, to bear heavy blows with the mallet. Chisels for paring concave surfaces are called gouges. For boring holes, bradawls, gimblets, centrebits, and gouges are used-the two latter are fixed in a stock or revolving handle, and are used for large holes. When it is required to ascertain if an angle be square, or of any given inclination, the square, or the bevel set to the required angle, is applied to test the work as it proceeds. When parallel edges are required, the marking gauge is used to draw the line to be worked to. When a simple straight line is required for working to, a piece of string is chalked, then stretched tightly over the wood and lifted in the middle, when, by its recoil, it strikes the wood and leaves a straight Fig. 1 is a section shewing the common or single step scarf, with plates, and the bolts passing through. or 1 2 3 Fig. 2 is the French scarf, called traits de Jupiter, nings, with the straps Jupiter's lightand bolts shewn. În these the scarf itself gives no resistance to the longitudinal strain. Fig. 3 shews a scarf in which the resistance of the wood to splitting is made available. The following are the principal rules for scarfing as stated by Tredgold. used-in oak, ash, or elm, six times the depth of The length of the scarf should be, if bolts are not the beam; in fir, twelve times the depth of the beam. If bolts and indents are combined, the twice the depth of the beam; in fir, four times the length of the scarf should be-in oak, ash, or elm, depth. In scarfing beams to resist transverse strains, straps driven on tight are better than bolts. The sum of the areas of the bolts should not be less than one-fifth the area of the beam, when a longitudinal strain is to be borne. No joint should be used in which shrinking or expansion can tend to tear the timbers. No joint can be made so strong as the timber itself. When two pieces of timber the fibres of both, it is called a longitudinal joint; are connected so that the joint runs parallel with but when the place of the joint is at right angles to the fibres of both, an abutting joint. α 4 Fig. 4 is an example of common and simple joint, chalked line. The straight-edge, a strip of wood for connecting timbers at right or other angles. It with one of its edges perfectly straight, is applied to detect superficial irregularities. The operation of planing the edge of a board straight is called shooting, and such edges are said to be shot. When the joiner requires to ascertain whether the surface of a piece of wood is all in one plane, he takes two slips of wood with edges perfectly straight and parallel, and of equal width; these slips, called winding-sticks, are placed edge upwards, one at each end, across the board, and the workman looks in the longitudinal direction of the board over the upper edges, and if the two edges be not in the same plane, the board is planed down at the elevated parts until it is out of wind. For setting work level, a spirit-level, set in a wooden frame, or a plumb-level is used. For further description of the tools alluded to above, and in the rest of this article, see the special articles. When two pieces of timber have to be united at their ends, as in lengthening the beams for roofing, partitions, the masts and keels of ships, &c., the operation is called scarfing, and the joint a scarf. The methods of scarfing are very numerous; those figured below will serve to illustrate the principal. a C IT is called a notched joint, and requires bolting. Fig. 5 is a notched joint for crossing timbers. In both figures, a and b represent the 6 pieces before joining, and c. when united. Timbers may be joined end to end by at simple notching, or by dovetailed notching, as fig. 6. Other applications of dovetailing timbers are shewn in figs. 7 and 8. Tie-beams, connected to wall-plates, as in fig. 7, are said to be cogged or cocked, whether dove-tailed or simply notched. The mortise and tenon joint is shewn in fig. 9; the cavity in a is the mortise, the projection on b the tenon. A very short tenon is called a stub CARPENTRY-CARPETS. tenon. When a second minor tenon is made dove-tailing is usually glued. Nails or pins and projecting from the principal tenon, it is called a glue are used with the mitre and other notched joints. tusk tenon. 9 b Boards may be united at their edges to form an extended surface, as a flat plank partition, &c., either by simple gluing of the shot edges, by a rebate (fig. 19), or by a ploughed groove and a corresponding projection. The rebate is cut by means of a rebating plane; that in the figure is combined with Figs. 10 and 11 shew methods of framing a rafter a bead, the usual joint for foot into a girder. 10 11 The above joints are some of those used in heavy work, or carpentry proper. For lighter joiner's work, similar methods of framing are used, only adapted to the work-to boards generally instead of beams; thus, for example, the mortise and tenon joint, made oblong instead of square, is used in framing doors, shutters, drawing-boards, or any other kind of extended superficial work liable to warping. An outside frame or skeleton is made with a panel or panels in the middle, and each piece of the frame has the grain at right angles to the piece into which it is mortised, in order that they shall eventually correct the warping. Dove-tailing is extensively used for connecting wooden partitions. The groove, fig. 20, a sort of extended mortise, is cut by a plane with a projecting iron called the plough. In all cases where glue is used in joints, it should be applied to both surfaces, which should be rubbed and 18 19 20 21 pressed together until nearly all the glue is forced out, then kept pressed by a cramp or weights. White lead is used for outside joints. Special departments of this subject, such as Roofs, Staircases, &c., will be treated under their respective heads. CA'RPETS. Woven C., such as are now so common in this country, were first used in the east, where the custom of sitting cross-legged on the floor still renders them especially useful. Our rude forefathers covered the floors of their houses with rushes, hair, or straw; and in Norwegian farmhouses, where so many of our ancient customs still exist, the floor of the best room is commonly strewed with juniper-twigs. The first step towards a woven carpet was made by plating rushes to form a matting. The principal varieties of C. now in use are the Turkey, the Axminster, the Brussels, the Wilton, the Venetian, the Dutch, the Kidderminster or Scotch, Whytock's Tapestry and Velvet Pile, and the Printed Felt Carpet. The real Turkey carpet is made in one piece; those manufactured for the orientals are usually too small for use in this country. The patterns consist merely of curved and angular strips, of variegated but dark and unobtrusive colours. The warp is of strong linen or cotton, to which bunches or tufts of coloured worsted are tied according to the pattern, a drawing of which is placed before the weaver to copy. The surface is afterwards shorn level. Rugs are made in a similar manner; the coloured worsteds are tied very rapidly by young girls. The Axminster Carpet is merely the English-made Turkey carpet, formerly manufactured as above at Axminster, in Devonshire. They are usually made the common mitre, fig. 13; the lapped mitre, fig. 14; to order, and of the size required for the room; and the lapped and tongued mitre, fig. 15. from the tedious nature of the process of manufacture, they are very expensive. Templeton's Patent Axminster Carpet is a very beautiful fabric, very much resembling that from which it derives its name, but it is wrought on the chenille principle. The Brussels Carpet is a mixture of linen and worsted, but, like the Turkey carpet, the worsted only is shewn on the upper surface. The basis or Modes of notching for boards are shewn in figs. 16, cloth is a coarse linen fabric, and between the upper 17, and 18. Fig. 16 is called a nosing, also shewn and under threads of the weft, several (usually five) at fig. 21, in its common application for fixing worsted threads of different colours are firmly bound the risers to the treads of staircases. Common in. The pattern is produced by drawing to the CARPI-CARPOCRATES. surface, between each reticulation of the cloth basis, a portion of the worsted thread of the colour required at that spot to produce the pattern; these updrawn portions are formed into loops, by being turned over wires, which are afterwards withdrawn, and the loops thus left standing above the basis form the figured surface of the carpet. This will be better understood by reference to the diagram, fig. 1, which is a slightly magnified section of a Brussels carpet, cut across the wires and the threads of the weft. The large dots above are the sections of the wire; the smaller dots, those of the weft or shoot threads; the waved lines, the warp; the parallel lines, the five coloured worsted threads; and the loops over the large dots are the updrawn worsted threads forming the surface of the carpet. The machinery and processes by which this arrangement is produced are rather complex, and require to be seen to be fully understood. Carpet Weaving. 2 The Wilton Carpet is made like the Brussels, but the wire has a groove in its upper surface, fig. 2, and instead of being drawn out, it is liberated by passing a sharp knife through the worsted loop into this groove, and thus making a velvet pile surface instead of the looped thread. The Venetian Carpet is produced in a common loom, and the pattern is all in the warp, which alone is visible, as it encloses the weft between its upper The patterns are generally and under surfaces. checks or stripes; the latter are chiefly used for stair carpets. The Dutch Carpet is a coarser and cheaper variety of plain Venetian, sometimes made wholly of hemp, or of a mixture of coarse wool and cow-hair. compensated, and the rose appears in its proper The Printed Felt C. are, as the name implies, A very beautiful fabric has also been introduced, called the Patent Wool Mosaic, formed by cementing a velvet pile upon plain cloth. It is used for rugs, &c. The pile is formed by stretching lengths of woollen yarn between plates of finely. perforated zinc, placed several yards apart, the colours of the threads being arranged so that their ends shall shew the pattern. The mass of yarn is then enclosed in a case, open at both ends, and means of a piston or ram at one end, a portion of this compressed without deranging the fibres; and by mass of yarn is forced forwards, the ends thus projecting are glued to the plain cloth, and when dried, are cut off to the length required for the pile. In this manner, several hundred slices are made from one setting of the yarn mosaic, and as many rugs produced. CA'RPI, a town of Northern Italy, 10 miles north of the city of Modena. It is surrounded by walls, defended by a citadel, has a cathedral, and manufactures of silk and straw hats. Pop. 5000.-CARPI is also the name of a town of Venetia, in the province of Verona, 28 miles south-east of Verona, Eugene over the French in 1701. Pop. 1200. celebrated for the victory obtained here by Prince The CARPINI, JOHANNES DE PLANO, a celebrated Franciscan monk, born in Capitanata, Naples, about 1210; was one of the six friars selected by Pope Innocent IV. to proceed to the court of the in 1246 threw Christendom into consternation, in emperor of the Mongols, whose warlike advances order to pacify the terrible nomadic warriors, and, if possible, convert them to Christianity. mission, accomplished under dreadful hardships, The Kidderminster or Scotch Carpet has usually a though without results so far as its main objects worsted warp and woollen weft, and the pattern is were concerned, was nevertheless far from unfruitmade by the combination of the colours of each. ful. Prior to this, the most monstrous fables had Three-ply C. of this kind are made especially in prevailed regarding the Tatars; and C.'s narrative, This is the most durable of the which gave a truthful and striking picture of their Kilmarnock. moderate-priced C., the patterns are not so bril-numbers, character, and civilisation, was the first to liant as those of the Brussels or the Tapestry, but, being ingrained and woollen throughout, they retain their character until worn through. This, and the three immediately preceding descriptions of carpet, exhibit their patterns nearly similar on both sides, and are therefore reversible. bring these myths into discredit. In this book he CARPINO, a town of Southern Italy, in the province of Foggia, 22 miles north-east of San Severo, with a population of about 6000. Whytock's Tapestry and Velvet Pile Carpet, as it is now frequently called, is becoming very extensively used as a cheap substitute for Brussels and Wilton, which it is made to resemble very closely in the brilliancy and variety of pattern. The manufacture of this carpet is very curious and ingenious. Instead CARPO'CRATES, or CARPOCRAS, flourished of five coloured yarns, only one of which is drawn to the surface at any one place, while the other four remain buried between the upper and under threads under Hadrian (130 A. D.) at Alexandria, where he of the cloth basis, a single coloured yarn is used, founded the Gnostic sect of Carpocratians. Accordand the variety of colour produced by dyeing it of ing to him, the essence of true religion consisted various colours at intervals of its length. The yarn in the union of the soul with the Monas or highest is coiled upon a drum, and printed by means of God, by means of contemplation, which elevated it He only is to be rollers in such a manner that when the threads that above the superstitions of the popular faith, and encompass the roller shall be uncoiled and laid in liberated it from the necessity of submitting to lines side by side, they shall present an elongated the common laws of society. printing of the pattern, so that a rose, for example, reckoned wise who attains to this. Among those the outline of which should be nearly circular, who have done so, are Jesus, Pythagoras, Plato, and will be an oval, with length equal to four times its Aristotle. The cosmogony of C. was of the usual breadth. When, however, the thread is looped over Gnostic character, the central peculiarity of which the wire, four inches of yarn being used for an inch was the belief that the worlds were created by angels. of the carpet pattern, this elongation is exactly | C. also held the doctrine of the transmigration 681 CARPOLITES-CARRIAGE DEPARTMENT. of souls. His followers existed down to the 6th century. Whether or not they were guilty of the abominations ascribed to them, is more than we can positively affirm; our only information concerning them being derived from orthodox writers, who were in the habit of slandering heretics. CA'RPOLITES, a generic term applied to fossil fruits, which, in the present state of our knowledge, it is impossible to refer more precisely to their place in the vegetable kingdom. 100 species of such fruits have been described, 70 of which belong to the carboniferous system. CA'RPUS. See EXTREMITY. CARRA'CA, LA, a town of Andalusia, Spain, one of the chief naval arsenals of the kingdom, is situated 4 miles east-south-east of Cadiz. It has been completely isolated from the mainland by artificial means; and so low is its situation, that it was necessary to erect the buildings on piles. It is defended by four forts, and is altogether very complete as an arsenal. CA'RRAGEEN, often incorrectly called C. Moss, or IRISH MOSS, a sea-weed (natural order, Alga; sub-order, Ceramiacea), or rather several species of sea-weed, now used to a considerable extent both medicinally and as an article of food. The name C. is originally Irish; and the use of these seaweeds appears to have been entirely confined to the peasantry of the coasts of Ireland, until about thirty years since they were recommended to general notice, and their medicinal virtues proclaimed by Mr Todhunter, of Dublin. They are, however, found on the rocky sea-shores of most parts of Europe, and of the eastern coasts of North America. The When treated for ten minutes with cold water, in the proportion of half an ounce of C. to three pints of water, and then boiled and strained, it yields, with or without spices, a very pleasant drink. With a larger proportion of C., a thickish liquid or mucilage is obtained; and on boiling down this strong decoction, and cooling, a stiff jelly is procured. Milk may be employed, instead of water, in the preparation of the various decoctions; and with the stronger one, along with sugar and spices, when thrown into a mould, a kind of blanc mange is obtained. C. is valued on account of its emollient and demulcent properties, and is likely to be found useful in most of those cases in which iodine might be exhibited; but its value seems to depend not a little on its being at once nutritious, a pleasant article of food, and easy of digestion. See NUTRITION. It has been much recommended in pulmonary consumption. In some parts of Ireland, C. boiled with water (mucilage) common colours in house-painting. is used instead of size for mixing with the more CARRA'RA, a town of Northern Italy, 60 miles south-west of Modena. It is situated on the Avenza, near its mouth in the Mediterranean, and is surrounded by the marble hills which have made its celebrity. Many of the principal buildings are wholly or partially constructed of the inferior kinds of white marble. There are upwards of 30 marble quarries in the vicinity of the town, but not more than 6 or 7 furnish the marble used for statuary. Extensive works, fitted up with English machinery for sawing the marble, have been established near the town, in which are several shops for the sale of marble ornaments. Many foreign artists have set up their studios here, in order to save the expense which the export of the marble in its rough state entails. C. has a fine collegiate church of the 13th and 15th centuries, with some good sculptures, an academy of fine arts, and a population, in 1872, of 23,827. The quarries have been worked for more than 2000 years. The famous CARRARA MARBLE is a white saccharine limestone, which derives its value to the sculptor from its texture and purity. It was formerly supposed to belong to the Primitive rocks, but is now known to be a limestone of the Oolitic period, highly altered by plutonic action. C.'s CARREL, ARMAND, a celebrated French publicist and republican leader, was born at Rouen in 1800, and was educated in the military school of St Cyr. After serving for some years in the army, he went to Paris, and devoted his attention to political and historical studies. In 1830, in connection with Thiers and Mignet, he became editor of the National, the most spirited and able of the journals opposed to the government of Charles X. colleagues being employed by the new government, he was left to conduct the National himself, which he did with a spirit and a freedom such as had not been witnessed in France for a long time-which on more than one occasion checked the arbitrary power government attempted to exercise, and gained for him the high admiration and esteem of the popular party. Government prosecutions of course followed his outspokenness, and heavy fines were decreed against him; but these were paid by public subscription, and each conviction only made his journal more famous. C., however, dreaded revolution as much as he hated despotism, and had no sympathy with many of those who looked up to him as a leader. Provoked into a duel with Emile de Girardin, by an attack on his personal character, C. was mortally wounded, and died July 24, 1836. His funeral was attended by many of the most distinguished men in France. CARRIAGE. See COACH, CART, WAGON. CA'RRIAGE DEPARTMENT, ROYAL, at Woolwich, is one of the great national manufacturing establishments maintained for warlike armaments-one of those concerning which it is still CARRICAL-CARRIER PIGEON. to manufacture by the government or by contract with private persons. This department was organised as a distinct establishment in 1803, and has been undergoing gradual enlargement ever since. Its primary work was that of making gun-carriages; but it now manufactures a great variety of articles in wood, more than half of which are for the use of the navy. Until 1854, the Board of Ordnance had power to lend or to refuse the services of the C. D. to the Admiralty; but since that year the matter rests The works, store-rooms, and with the War Office. yards are of vast size, often employing from 2000 to 3000 hands. More than 10,000 pairs of wheels are made annually, besides all the other articles in wood. There are more than 20 steam-engines in various parts of the establishment; and the woodcutting and shaping machines are of the highest order of excellence. See GUN-CARRIAGE. CARRICAL, or KARIKAL, a French port within the limits of Tanjore, a district of the presidency of Madras. It stands in lat. 10° 55′ N., and long. 79° 53′ E., on the estuary of a small branch of the Cauvery, a tributary of the Bay of Bengal. C. is accessible from the sea only after the periodical rains, and then only for coasting craft. The town and territory contain 63 square miles, and about 50,000 inhabitants. The settlement, originally ceded to France by a native grant in 1759, and subsequently subdued by the British, was restored in 1814, on condition of being neither fortified nor garrisoned. It an unsolved problem whether it is better and cheaper are four spinning-mills, one for weaving linen, Pop. one bleaching establishment, a starch manufactory and a tan-yard. A market is held every Monday The town returns one member to and Saturday, and a fair twice a year. (1871) 9452. parliament. There are several barrows or tumuli in the vicinity. C. is connected by railway with Belfast, Portrush, and Larne. A few years since, a shaft was opened by the Marquis of Downshire, in the hope of finding coal-without success; but salt A company has been formed, and are of a superior quality, and in great abundance, was found. working the mine. The length and breadth of the CA'RRICK-ON-SUIR, a town of Tipperary, county are nearly equal-about 5 statute miles. situated, as its name implies, on the Suir, which is navigable at this point, 12 miles east of Clonmel, in the midst of very fine scenery. Pop. (1871) 8055. C. was formerly celebrated for its woollen manufacture, which has recently been considerably revived, and there are also linen and flax factories. exports much agricultural produce. The town has recently much improved. C. became a place of note soon after the Norman Conquest. There are the remains of a castle built in 1309, on the site of an CARRIER, JEAN BAPTISTE, one of the most old priory of the Knights of St John of Jerusalem. infamous and blood-thirsty members of the French National Convention, was born at the village of Yolai, near Aurillac, in Haut-Auvergne, in 1756. Entering the National Convention in 1792, he took an active part in the formation of the Revolutionary Tribunal, voted for the death of the king, demanded the arrest of the Duke of Orleans, and assisted in the overthrow of the Girondists. At Nantes, whither he was sent on a mission against the moderates, in October 1793, he found ample means for indulging his insatiable thirst for human blood. The utter defeat of the Vendeans had filled carried a resolution for murdering the unhappy the prisons with captives, and C. proposed and prisoners en masse. Accordingly, on November 15, he compelled 94 priests to embark in a vessel, under pretence of deportation, and during the night drowned the whole of them, by having the ship scuttled. Another of these Noyades, as they were called, in which 138 persons were sacrificed, took place soon after, and they were repeated to the number of 25, their perpetrators facetiously terming them 'vertical deportations.' Other cruelties C. committed here. Men and women were tied together was called mariage republicain (republican marriage). feet and hands, and thrown into the Loire; and this With such recklessness were these murders committed, that, in one instance, a number of foreign war-prisoners were drowned by mistake. The water of the Loire was so poisoned by corpses, that its Even Robespierre was use for drinking and cooking was prohibited. 500 the bridge near Nantes. political prisoners were shot, as in a battue, on offended by these enormities, and recalled C., who boldly justified his own conduct before the Convention. The fall of Robespierre was, however, soon followed by outcries against Carrier; judgment was decreed against him, and he perished under protestation that, in all his cruelties, he had acted a true republican the guillotine, December 16, 1794 dying with the according to orders, and as patriot. CARRICKFERGUS, a seaport town of Ireland, is situated on the Lough of Belfast, about 10 miles distant from the town of that name. Though locally within the county of Antrim, it forms a county of itself. C. extends nearly a mile along the northwestern shore of the Lough. Its chief feature is its castle, a fine picturesque object, supposed to have been erected by De Courcy in the 12th century. It is situated on a rock about 30 feet high, projecting boldly into the sea, by which it is surrounded on three sides. The ballium or keep is 90 feet in height. From the top of the keep a splendid view is obtained, extending, in a clear atmosphere, to the Mourne Mountains and the Scotch coast. The castle contains a barrack, bomb-proof magazine, and ordnance store-rooms; and for many years, 22 pieces of ordnance, 12-pounders, were mounted on the works. At present, a total change is being made in the defence of the castle, and cannon of a very large calibre are to be mounted, which will command the entrance of the Lough. In 1575, a wall 16 feet high and 7 thick, with 7 bastions, to surround the town, was commenced, and completed in the year 1608; a considerable portion of the wall is still standing, and one of the four entrance-gates. On the 14th June 1690, King William III. landed here with his army, twelve days before the battle of the Boyne. The rock on which the king stepped on landing is at the end of the quay, projecting from it, and still forming the landing-place. In 1760, Commodore Thurot captured the castle, but on the approach of troops from Belfast, was forced to abandon it. The parish church, said to have been founded in the year 1164, on the site of a pagan temple, is a fine old building, dedicated to St Nicholas. There are several other churches and chapels in the town, and several good day and Sunday schools in connection with the religious bodies, and a fine model school has just been erected by the National Board. There is a Literary and Scientific Society, with readingroom, library, and museum. The fishery of the bay, which is famous for oysters of an unusual size, employs a good number of the inhabitants. There CARRIER PIGEON, a variety of the domestic Pigeon (q. v.), remarkable for the degree in which it possesses the instinct and power of returning from a distance to its accustomed home; and which has been, therefore, much employed to convey letters from one place to another. In Eastern countries, 633 |