CARBONIC ACID-CARBONIC OXIDE. the atmosphere, to the extent of 1 volume to 2500 of air, and also in combination with a variety of substances. It is most easily prepared for experimental purposes from chips of marble, water, and hydrochloric acid, which are placed in a gas bottle with tubes (see fig.). The hydrochloric acid (HCl) acts on the marble (CaO,CO,), and forms chloride of calcium (CaCl), water (HO), and carbonic acid (CO2), which escapes as gas with effervescence, and may be conducted by a proper tube under the mouths of jars filled with water and placed on a pneumatic trough. Where C. A. is required in large quantities, it is prepared in a leaden vessel from chalk (CaO,CO2) and sulphuric acid (SO) diluted with water, when sulphate of lime (CaO,SO,) is formed, and C. A. escapes as gas. The atomic weight or equivalent of C. A. is 22; it is a clear, colourless gas, with a pleasant, acidulous smell and taste. Under great pressure and cold, it can be condensed into a liquid, and even a solid resembling snow in appearance. Under ordinary atmospheric pressure, C. A. dissolves in water to the extent of 2 volumes of gas in 3 of water; but under increased pressure, a very much larger amount of gas is taken up by the water, and in this way the various kinds of AERATED WATERS (q. v.) are prepared. The gas is more than half as heavy again as ordinary air, being 1529. It is incombustible, and a non-supporter of combustion, at once extinguishing a lighted candle, gas jet, or even a piece of burning phosphorus, when these are placed in a jar filled with the gas, or even in a mixture of C. A. and air. This power of putting out flame and fire has been turned to account in the extinguishing of burning coal-mines, where, all the openings to the mine being properly secured, C. A., in the form of the spent air from an ordinary coal-furnace, has been passed into the mine, with the result of successfully stopping the fire. It is irrespirable in a concentrated form, producing spasm of the glottis, which prevents the admission of the gas into the system; and when mixed with air, it can be breathed without suspicion, and then acts as a narcotic poison, even when present only to the extent of 4 or 5 per cent. of the air. The deadly effects of C. A. are observed, in the combustion of charcoal, coal, or coal-gas, in chauffers, furnaces, or in fireplaces with the dampers down, when the deadly fumes of C. A. steal more or less quickly over the inmates of the room, and they almost unconsciously become its victims-thus unknowingly following the course of the Parisian suicide, who purposely lights a charcoal fire in the centre of his room, and prepares for death; and in overcrowded rooms where the C. A., exhaled from the lungs of each inmate at every breath, poisons the air of the apartment, and day by day slowly but surely robs the robust of health, and ultimately of life. In such cases as the Black Hole of Calcutta (q. v.), where there was scarcely any outlet for the poisonous gas, only a few hours may be required to complete the catastrophe. Besides abounding everywhere in the atmosphere, C. A. is largely evolved from fissures in the earth, especially in volcanic districts. In the poison or Upas valley of Java, which is a valley of an oval form, about of a mile in circumference, and 30 to 35 feet deep, the carbonic rises to a height of about 18 feet from the surface, and the whole bottom of the valley is devoid of vegetable and animal life, and is strewn here and there with the bleached bones of man and other animals that have unluckily stepped within the deadly circle. A dog thrown in, dies in 14 seconds; and birds attempting to fly across the valley, instantly drop down dead. In the neighbourhood of the lake of Laach, in Rhenish Prussia, the amount of C. A. evolved every day has been estimated at 600,000 lbs. weight. In a state of combination, C. A. forms an ingredient in a great number of minerals called carbonates, such as chalk, limestone of various kinds (CaO,CO,), black-band iron-stone (carbonate of iron, FeO, CO,), malachite (carbonate of copper, CuO,HO, +CuO,CO2), &c. C. A. is the principal product of combustion; the carbon of the burning substance (coal, candle, coal-gas, wood, paper, &c.) uniting with the oxygen of the atmosphere, and forming C. A. (CO). It is also a product of respiration (q. v.), and is evolved more or less largely by all animals, not only by the mouth, but in exhalations from the skin, and is present in blood, urine, &c. It is evolved during the fermentation (q. v.) of beer, wine, &c., and often remains in brewers' vats when the liquor has been drawn off. During the decay of vegetable and animal matters, C. A. is produced, and in explosions of fire-damp in coal mines, it is formed in large quantity, and fills the underground passages. C. A. forms the largest ingredient in the food of vegetables, and is therefore abstracted in large quantity from the air by plants. It enters into combination with the majority of the oxides of the metals and other compounds, to form a class of salts called carbonates, several of which have been referred to. C. A. when present in a vessel in quantity may be recognised by the power of extinguishing a lighted candle, or by not burning itself. C. A. in the form of gas may be readily recognised in the atmosphere by exposing a little lime-water in a saucer, or other shallow vessel, when the lime (CaO) abstracting the C. A. (CO,) from the air, a white film of carbonate of lime or chalk (CaO,CO2) is formed on the surface of the liquid. A solution of Baryta (q. v.) in water is more delicate in its action on the C. A. of the air, and more readily indicates its presence. CARBONIC OXIDE is a compound of one atom of carbon and one atom of oxygen, is represented by the symbol CO, and has the atomio weight 16. It does not occur naturally, but may be observed burning with a pale-blue flame in fireplaces and stoves, especially in frosty weather. During the combustion of the fuel at the lower part of the grate, the oxygen of the air unites with the carbon of the fuel to form carbonic acid (CO2); and this gas rising up through red-hot coal or carbon (C), has part of its oxygen abstracted by the carbon, and two atoms of carbonic oxide (CO) are produced, which taking fire on the top of the coals, burn with the characteristic blue flame, abstracting more oxygen from the air, and re-forming carbonic Though poisonous when inhaled by the lungs, acid (CO). C. O. can be prepared for experimental C. A. is rather refreshing when taken into the purposes by heating a mixture of oxalic acid (HO, stomach. Thus, aërated beverages of all kinds-C,O,) and sulphuric acid (SO,) in a retort, when the beer, champagne, and carbonated mineral waters-latter abstracts the water from the oxalic acid, and owe their refreshing and invigorating qualities to the presence of C. A.; and if the gas be allowed to escape, they become almost tasteless, stale, and mawkish. 604 the other elements (C,O,) escape as carbonic acid (CO,), and C. O. (CO). On passing the mixed gases through a solution of potash (KO), the carbonic acid is retained as carbonate of potash (KOCO,), whilst CARBONIC OXIDE-CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM. the C. O. remains as gas. C. O. is a transparent, colourless gas, a little lighter than air, being 967, and has never been liquefied nor solidified. It burns with a blue flame, but is a non-supporter of combustion, and at once extinguishes a lighted candle introduced into it. It is very poisonous, and even when largely diluted with air, if inhaled, it produces a sensation of oppression and tightness of the head, and ultimately acts as a narcotic poison. It does not take part in any natural phenomena, nor is it put to any use in the arts and manufactures, and in these respects, affords a striking contrast to carbonic acid, which has so many duties to perform in nature and in the arts. name CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM, the given to the strata which, in geological order, rest upon the Devonian measures, and are capped by the They derive their designation from Permian series. the amount of carbon contained in them, for to them the great coal-fields of the world belong. In an economic sense, they are the most valuable series of rocks in the earth's crust, forming the great storehouse from which is obtained the chief supply of coal, iron, and lime. The rocks of the system are composed of a vast series of beds of sandstone, limestone, shale, and coal. In some coal-fields, these are so interstratified, that it is impossible to subdivide the strata in the order of time. In the Edinburgh district, there are nearly 100 coal-seams, omitting all under six inches in thickness. Out of the whole depth of the strata, amounting to about 6300 feet, these seams The remainder consists of occupy only 204 feet. sandstone and shale in the upper half; towards the middle, limestones appear, and these increase downwards in the number and thickness of the COAL MEASURES, beds, but are still intermixed with seams of coal. Edinburgh. Glasgow. N. York. In the midland counties, the coal measures are the only portion of the carboniferous system present, and these rest on the Silurian or older rocks. In Devonshire, there occurs an extensive series of shales and sandstones, with a few beds of earthy anthracite or culm, associated with argillaceous rocks, probably belonging to the lower limestone shales, much indurated, and traversed by slaty cleavage. N. Ireland. 2200 400 1600 1,000 1800 1659 1000 1,500 6400 500 4650 150 1200 From the great economic value of the contents of the C. S., we are better acquainted with its fossils than with any fauna or flora that flourished before the tertiary epoch. As coal is the result of the mineralisation of vegetable matter, the coal measures must necessarily abound in the remains of plants. No less than 294 species have been described as found in Britain alone. Numerous impressions of plants, as well as traces of structure, are found in the seams of coal themselves; but the more distinct forms are preserved in the interstratified beds of mud and ironstone, often in great number and exquisite beauty. Such remains consist chiefly of impressions of leaves separated from their branches; of casts of trunks, more or less in a broken state; and of roots much compressed, yet occupying their original position in the clay soil now indurated into shale; with these occur pieces of wood, or remains of trees, in which the vegetable texture is to some The great proportion of the extent preserved. plants seem to have flourished in marshy swamps, and to have accumulated where they grew, like peat, the material afterwards converted into coal. Hence a stratum of shale in which are imbedded the roots of Sigillaria, Calamites, &c., is the invariable 3000 unknown depth 2000 The chief floor on which the coal seam rests. The animal remains are as numerous and as well 605 1 H CARBUNCLE-CARDAMOMS. the crocodile of the Ganges, and armed with a double series of enormous teeth, which were sometimes as much as four inches long by two inches broad, as in Megalichthys (q. v.), dimensions rarely attained even by the largest known reptiles. Associated with these were a great number of sharks belonging to the Cestraciontidæ (q. v.), a family of which we have only a single living representative. They were furnished with a long bony spine to strengthen the dorsal fin, and thus enable them to turn speedily in the water, as they required to do in seizing their prey. These spines are often found fossil. The only remains referred to a higher division of the animal kingdom yet found belong to the saurian Archegosaurus (q. v.), found in the coal-fields of Germany. CA'RBUNCLE, a name given by lapidaries to the beautiful mineral called Pyrope (q. v.), by mineralogists. The C. of the ancients appears to have been either pyrope, or the deep-red variety of noble garnet (see GARNET), which is in every respect very similar to it, or probably included both. CARBUNCLE (Lat. carbunculus, a little coal) derives its name from the two prominent symptoms -a glowing fiery redness, and a burning pain. It consists of an inflammation, caused by some vitiated condition of the blood, or some atmospheric influence, attacking a patch of skin on the shoulders, nape of the neck, or indeed on any part of the body. The part swells slightly, feels hard, and this hardness extends deeply into the tissues; the pain is very severe, and the patient much depressed with loss of appetite, and general derangement of the secretions. As the disease advances, the redness assumes a dark purple or livid hue, the cuticle rises in blisters, and many small specks of matter appear on its surface, which discharge, and leave apertures like those in the rose of a watering-pot; through this a thin viscid fluid escapes, and occasionally a small slough or core of the true skin which has been killed by the disease. Sometimes these apertures meet, forming large openings, and in others the whole patch of skin sloughs and comes away. The treatment of C. consists in restoring the secreting organs to a healthy condition, the agents for which must depend on the individual case; in supporting the patient's strength by easily digested food, wine, brandy and bark, with nitric acid; relieving pain by opiates, and encouraging suppuration with warm poultices; carrot, turnip, and yeast poultices being favourite applications in this disease. To prevent excessive loss of skin, the C. must be divided freely with a knife from one margin of the inflamed patch to the opposite one. CARBURETTED HYDROGEN is a term in chemistry applied to several compounds of carbon and hydrogen. Thus, light carburetted or mono-carburetted hydrogen (CH) is the gaseous compound popularly known as marsh gas and firedamp, and is the principal constituent of coal-gas. See GAS. Heavy carburetted or bi-carburetted hydrogen (C,H,) is otherwise known as Olefiant Gas (q. v.). CARCAJENTÉ, a town of Valencia, Spain, about 28 miles south-south-west of the city of Valencia, situated on a rich plain near the right bank of the Juncar. It is well built, with good streets, and has a palace belonging to the Marquis of Calzada. It has some manufactures of linen and woollen, and a trade in the agricultural produce of the district. Pop. about 7000. CA'RCANET, a jewelled chain or necklace. Venice was famous for the manufacture of carcanets in the 15th century. CAʼRCASS, in military pyrotechny, is a hollow case of iron, sometimes globular, and sometimes ovate, filled with combustibles. It is fired from a mortar. Its chief use is to ignite buildings in the enemy's quarter, and to give sufficient light to aim the shot and shells. Carcasses are said to have been first used by one of the princely ecclesiastics of Germany, the Bishop of Munster, when he fought against the Duke of Luxembourg at Groll, in 1672. The oval carcasses, being uncertain in their flight, are now nearly abandoned. round carcasses now made are chiefly those here indicated: The The Carcasses are not intended to burst, but to send out, through holes, a furious and inextinguishable fire, which lasts 8 or 10 minutes. The composition with which they are filled, consists of saltpetre, sulphur, mealed gunpowder, pitch, rosin, tallow, and Venice turpentine, about one-half being saltpetre. composition is packed in tightly through one of the holes; and the holes are stopped with fuses adjusted to ignite the composition after a certain space of time. Sometimes old pistol barrels, loaded to the muzzle, are introduced with the composition. Compare those details with CASE-SHOT, and SHELLS. CARCASSONE, a town in the department of Aude, France, situated on the river Aude, and the Canal du Midi, about 55 miles south-east of Toulouse. It is divided into two parts, the old and new towns. The modern town is well built, with streets running at right angles to each other, squares adorned with trees, pleasant boulevards, and several marble fountains. The old town, built on a height, is much more picturesque, with its ramparts and towers, some parts of them dating from the time of the Visigoths, and the rest, with the castle, from the 11th or 12th century. This old town suffered greatly at the hands of the fierce bigot Simon de Montfort and his crusaders, who here burned 400 of the Albigenses. In the 14th c. it effectually resisted the Black Prince. The cloth manufactures are important, employing, it is said, upwards of 7000 people. C. has also manufactures of paper, leather, linen, and soap. Pop. (1872), exclusive of garrison, 18,396. The ancient name of the town was Carcaso, which was a place of some note in the time of Cæsar. CARCHA'RIAS. See SHARK. CA'RDAMINE. See CRESS, BITTER. CA'RDAMOMS are the capsules of certain species of plants of the natural order Scitamineæ (q. v.), and belonging to at least two genera, Amomum and Elettaria. They are three-celled, and contain numerous wrinkled seeds, which form an aromatic pungent spice, weaker than pepper, and with a peculiar but agreeable taste. On account of their cordial and stimulant properties, they are employed in medicine, very generally to qualify other medicines; they are also used in confectionary, although not to a great extent in Britain; but in Asia they are a favourite condiment; and in the north of Germany, they are used in almost every household to flavour pastry.-The C. recognised in the British pharmacopoeias, and called True or Officinal C., also known in commerce as Malabar C., are the produce of Elettaria Cardamomum, a native of the mountains of Malabar and Canara. They depend for their qualities on a peculiar pungent essential oil, called Oil of Cardamom, which may be obtained from them by distilling them with water, and when fresh, is CARDAN-CARDIFF. colourless. Other kinds of C. occur in commerce, but none is equal to the true C. in commercial value. The different kinds of C. differ not only in strength, but in the character of their aroma. The plants producing them have much general similarity. placed at his left hand, the paste-tub on his right. The enamelling of address-cards is produced by CA'RDIA, the upper orifice of the stomach, called, on account of its vicinity to the heart, by the same Greek name, cardia, and probably hardly distin guished from it in the earliest times of Greek medicine. SO called from CARDAN, JEROME, a celebrated mathematician, naturalist, physician, and philosopher, born at Pavia, September 24, 1501, was the illegitimate son of a physician and jurisconsult at Milan. He received his early education at home, and completed his studies in Pavia and Padua. After some years, he became professor of mathematics at Milan. Here his reputation began to grow. After a few years, he began to lecture on medicine, to the practice of which he ultimately betook himself. By 1546, his reputation had so increased, that he was invited by the king of Denmark to accept a professorship at Copenhagen, which, however, he declined; and in 1552, we find him proceeding to Scotland, on an invitation from Hamilton, primate of that country. He managed to cure the primate of an inveterate asthma, which had defied the skill of the most celebrated physicians, and returned to Milan enriched by the bounty of his patient. Here he again settled for some time. In the autumn of 1559, however, he removed to Pavia as professor of medicine, whence, again, in the same capacity, he removed to Bologna, where he continued teaching till 1570, when we find him imprisoned for debt. Having regained his liberty in 1571, he went to Rome to avoid his creditors. Here he was speedily admitted a member of the medical college, and pensioned by Pope Gregory XII. The rest of his life he spent, without public employment, in Rome, where he died, September 2, 1576, a few weeks after finishing his autobiography. Some writers assert, but on no sufficient authority, that he starved himself to death, to fulfil a prediction which he had made as to the time when he CA'RDIFF (Caer-Taff, Fort of the Taff), a parshould die. It is certain, however, that he was a devoted astrologer, and cast horoscopes for himself and others. The fancifulness necessary to support liamentary and municipal borough and seaport, one the faith of an astrologer imbued all his scientific of the county towns of Glamorgan, South Wales, writings. These were very voluminous. A summary situated on the river Taff, 170 miles west of London of his notions on physics and metaphysics is given by railway. The population has risen from 2000 in in his two works-De Subtilitate, in 21 books, and 1801, to 56,911 in 1871, with a floating population De Rerum Varietate, in 17 books. On the whole, of about 5000. C., with Cowbridge and Llantrishe wrote 122 treatises on physics, mathematics, sant, returns one member to parliament. The town astronomy, astrology, rhetoric, history, ethics, dialec- extends about one mile in each direction from the tics, natural history, music, and medicine. These, town-hall. Among the public buildings are the it need scarcely be said, abound in incoherent para- Glamorganshire and Monmouthshire infirmary, towndoxes, contradictions, and capricious abstractions, character, and a public park. Of places of worship more than enough to overwhelm the few profound hall, free library and museum, and county jail. ideas which he originated. A formula for the There are also many private buildings of a superior solution of certain kinds of cubic equations is called in C., 9 belong to the Church of England, 15 to the Independent and Baptist communities, 6 to the 'Cardan's formula,' and was published by him, as his own invention, in the Ars Magna sive de Regulis Wesleyan, and about 15 to other sects. Algebraicis (1545); but it would appear formula was really the invention of one Tartalea or Tartaglia. In religion, C. was heterodox, and commonly reputed an atheist. His numerous writings were collected and edited by Charles Sphon (10 vols., Lyon, 1663). that the CA'RDBOARD, or CARD, is made by pasting together several layers of paper, according to the thickness and quality required. Bristol-board, used by artists, is made entirely of white paper; ordinary C., of fine white paper outside, with one or more sheets of coarse cartridge-paper between. According to the number of layers, they are called three, four, six, or eight sheet boards. Mill-board, used by bookbinders as the basis of book-covers, is made of coarse brown paper, glued and strongly pressed. The workman arranges the paper in the order required for pasting, and the pile, called a head, is CARDIA'LGIA, pain of the heart or stomach (CARDIA). The name is commonly applied to the particular variety of pain called heartburn, arising from a disordered stomach, and accompanied with acid eructations. See INDIGESTION. The port of C. is the outlet for the large mineral and manufactured produce of the central portion of the South Wales mineral-field, in which are the Aberdare, and the Rhondda Valley, with which this populous districts of Merthyr-Tydvil, Rhymney, port is connected by the Taff Vale, the Rhymney, The town is also one of the chief and the Ely Valley Railways, and the GlamorganThe Bute docks, east and west, shire Canal. stations on the Great Western line from London to area of 76 acres, constructed at the Milford-Haven. with an expense of the Bute estate, have cost upwards of a million sterling, and belong entirely to the present marquis. There are about 40 staiths on the construction for the purpose of loading vessels with quays of the docks, with machinery of a peculiar coal, by which the breaking of the coal is almost entirely prevented. Each of these staiths is 607 CARDIGAN-CARDINAL. South Wales, on Cardigan Bay, with an area of 675 capable of shipping 560 tons of coal in a day of The assizes (half-yearly, alternately with Swansea) and the quarter-sessions are held at the Town Hall. The ancient city of Llandaff, now a mere village, is almost connected with Cardiff. Cardiff Castle, built in the 11th c., is partly now in ruins, and partly occupied by the Marquis of Bute, to whom nearly the whole of the modern town belongs. Robert Duke of Normandy, brother of Henry I., died in the castle, after being a prisoner for 28 years. Cromwell (1648) got possession of the castle by treachery, after bombarding it three days; and he afterwards hanged the traitor, as an example to his own soldiery. This town was anciently an important one, successively under the British, Romans, and Normans. the south border of the county, the Claerwen, Ystwith, and Rheidol. C. contains some romantic waterfalls, especially tho Rheidol Falls and the Devil's Bridge, and above 20 small lakes or llyns, noted for their wild beauty. C. reposes on Lower Silurian slates and shales, containing few or no organic remains. Rich veins of copper, lead, zinc, and silver occur. The climate is cold and wet, but mild though wet on the coast. Snow lies long on the hills in winter. Summer is delightful in the valleys. C. is an agricultural county, and its chief branch of industry is the rearing of live-stock. The chief crops are oats, barley, and potatoes on the poor clay and peat soils of the mountains, and wheat, barley, and potatoes on the flat loams of the coast and valleys. The cattle and horses are small. There are some manufactures of coarse woollens and gloves, stockings and hats. Oats, barley, cattle, sheep, pigs, butter, slates, and woollens are exported. Cardigan is the county town; the other chief towns being Aberystwith, Lampeter, Adpar, Aberayron, Tregaron. C. sends one member to parliament. Pop. (1871) 62,712; registered electors, 5554. In 834, the king of C. became king of CARDIGAN (anciently, Aberteifi, Mouth of the all Wales, under the title of Roderick the Great. Teify), the county town of Cardiganshire, a parlia. He divided Wales among his three sons. mentary and municipal borough and seaport, in the this, the Danes and Normans overran Cardigansouth-west corner of the county, on the right bank of shire. The county has many remains of British the Teify, 3 miles from its mouth, and 239 miles north and Roman camps and roads, Druidical circles, by west of London. The vicinity exhibits romantic cairns, and castles. Many Welsh princes and bards scenery on the Teify, and grand rocks on the coast. were buried in the abbey of Strata Florida, 16 miles The streets, except the chief one, are narrow and south-east of Aberystwith, and some of the records steep, the houses built of slate-rock. Pop. of the of the principality were kept here. In C. there is a municipal borough (1871), 3461; of the parlia- curious practice of sending presents (biddings) to a mentary borough, 4939. With Aberystwith, Lam-new-married couple, which, when sold, often realise peter, and Adpar, C. returns one member to parlia-£50 or £60. C. was disturbed, 1813-1844, by the ment. In 1872, 503 vessels, of 15,643 tons, entered Rebecca riots. and cleared the port. The general trade is confined to vessels of 20 to 100 tons. Vessels of 400 tons reach the town by spring-tides. C. became an important town about the Norman Conquest. The Normans were frequently defeated before mastering it. There are the remains of a castle on a low cliff on the Teify, which is supposed to have been founded, in 1160, by a Norman baron. The town suffered much in the struggles between the Welsh and the Normans. The Teify is said to have been the last British resort of the beaver. CARDIGAN BAY, a semicircular bend of St George's Channel, on the west coast of Wales, 45 miles wide from north to south, and 20 miles deep, with a sweep of coast of 110 miles. Its exterior points are Brach-y-Pwll, off which lies Bardsey Isle, in Caernarvon, and Sturm Head, in Pembroke. It receives the rivers Mawddach, Dovy, Ystwith, Yren, and Teify. It has 3 to 30 fathoms water, with three reefs. A strong current sweeps round the bay from south to north. Almost all the harbours on the coast are obstructed by bars. A great part of C. B. is said to have been once dry fand, protected, as Holland now is, by dams and dikes, and containing 16 towns, and the land is said to have been submerged about 520 A.D. CARDIGANSHIRE, a maritime county in After CARDINAL (Lat. cardinalis, principal, from cardo, a hinge). Cardinals are the highest dignitaries in the Roman Church after the pope, whose electors and councillors they are. The title, however, had at first a more general application. The pope being the sovereign bishop over the whole Romish Church, and having, as such, many duties to fulfil inconsistent with those of a particular diocese, had, from very early times, a number of bishops, priests, and deacons whom he appointed his vicars and coadju tors for the management of the diocese of Rome. The bishops exercised the episcopal function in the Pope's stead, cach having a peculiar church within the diocese. The priests were titular parsons of the churches in the city of Rome, and had the cure of souls. The deacons had charge of some churches and chapels of devotion, which they held as deaconries, with the additional duty of assisting the pope when he officiated in public. These three classes of ecclesiastics were called cardinati or cardinales, to denote that they were the first or chief over the rest, and that all the affairs of the diocese of Rome were under their direction. At a subsequent period, the priests and deacons of other cities of importance assumed the title of C., to distinguish them from other priests and deacons over whom they claimed supremacy; but the popes subsequently ordained that none but those |